TARR  &  MSMURRY'S 

GEOGRAPHIE, 


FIRST 
BODIES 


HOME 
GEOGRAPHY     i 


LIBRARY 

OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Accession      _.8.455.8  .......     Class 


HOME   GEOGKAPHY 

AND  THE  EARTH  AS  A   WHOLE 


TARR   AND   McMURRY   GEOGRAPHIES 

FIRST   BOOK 

HOME    GEOGRAPHY 

AND  THE  EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE 


BY 

RALPH  S.  TARR,  B.S.,  F.G.S.A. 

it 
PROFESSOR    OF    DYNAMIC    GEOLOGY   AND    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY 

AT  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 
AND 

FRANK   M.    McMURRY,  PH.D. 

PROFESSOR   OF  THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   TEACHING  AT   TEACHERS 
COLLEGE,    COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


WITH  MANY  COLORED  MAPS  AND  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS 
CHIEFLY  PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  ACTUAL  SCENES 


gorfc 
THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1900 


COPYKIGHT,    1900, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


-Press 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith 
Norwood  Mass.  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THIS  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  three  volumes ;  the  sec- 
ond deals  with  North  America ;  the  third,  with  Europe 
and  the  other  continents.  Since  Part  I  of  the  present 
volume  is  a  radical  innovation,  it  perhaps  needs  an 
explanatory  foreword. 

NECESSITY  OF  HOME  GEOGRAPHY. — The  final  basis  for 
all  study  of  geography  is  actual  experience.  Yet  text- 
books on  that  subject  rarely  treat  Home  Geography  at 
all,  and  those  that  do,  devote  but  few  pages  to  it.  This 
subject  should,  we  think,  receive  far  more  careful  attention. 

NECESSITY  OF  OTHER  BASAL  NOTIONS.  —  Home  experi- 
ence alone,  however,  cannot  offer  a  complete  basis  for  the 
later  study  of  geography,  because  no  one  locality  presents 
all  the  features  required.  From  this  it  happens  that  the 
best  books  have  contained  some  definitions  and  illustra- 
tions, as  of  mountain,  river,  valley,  harbor,  and  factory, 
and  have  planned  to  build  the  later  text  with  the  ideas 
these  gave  as  a  foundation.  Such  conceptions  are  cer- 
tainly necessary  in  the  early  part  of  geography ;  but  mere 
definitions  fail  to  produce  vivid,  accurate  pictures.  The 
average  pupil  who  has  pursued  geography  for  a  year,  has 
little  notion  of  the  great  importance  of  soil,  of  what  a 
mountain  or  a  river  really  is,  of  the  value  of  good  trade 
routes,  and  why  a  vessel  cannot  find  a  harbor  wherever 

_84558 


VI  PREFACE 

it  will  cast  anchor  along  the  coast.  Yet  such  ideas  are 
the  proper  basis  for  the  study  of  geography  in  the  higher 
grades.  The  fact  that  they  are  so  often  wanting  is  proof 
that  our  geography  still  lacks  foundation. 

How  THESE  NEEDS  ARE  MET.  —  The  first  110  pages  of 
this  volume  attempt  to  supply  this  foundation  by  treating 
first,  such  common  things  as  soil,  hills,  valleys,  industries, 
climate,  and  government,  which  are  part  of  every  child's 
environment ;  and  secondly,  other  features,  as  mountains., 
rivers,  lakes,  and  the  ocean,  which,  though  absent  from 
many  localities,  are  still  necessary  as  a  preparation  for 
later  study.  Definitions,  however,  are  not  relied  upon 
for  giving  the  child  this  extra  knowledge,  but  detailed 
descriptions  and  discussions  instead.  This  by  no  means 
involves  neglect  of  the  child's  own  environment  from  the 
time  the  unfamiliar  matter  is  introduced,  for  through- 
out the  three  volumes  home  experiences  are  frequently 
used.  We  believe  that  our  plan  gives  a  fuller  guarantee 
of  fitness  for  advanced  study  than  has  heretofore  been 
furnished. 

RELATIONSHIP  TO  MANKIND.  —  According  to  the  defi- 
nition of  geography,  —  which  treats  of  the  relation  be- 
tween man  and  the  earth,  —  a  hill  or  a  lake  is  worthy 
of  mention  only  because  it  bears  a  relation  to  us,  the 
men  upon  the  earth ;  considered  by  itself  it  is  not  a  part 
of  geography.  Therefore  each  chapter  which  takes  up 
one-  of  the  above  subjects,  either  closes  with  the  bearing 
of  the  given  topic  upon  mankind,  or  it  deals  with  the 
human  relationship  throughout. 

EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE.  —  The  most  difficult  portion  of 
our  task  has  been  that  which  presents  the  Earth  as  a 
Whole.  That  a  bird's-eye  view  should  be  given  at  an 


PREFACE  Vll 

early  period  in  the  child's  instruction  is  not  questioned ; 
but  it  is  not  easy,  in  limited  space,  to  support  the  prin- 
cipal facts  with  sufficient  detail  to  produce  vivid  and 
interesting  pictures.  The  authors  have  found  that  some 
topics  commonly  included  in  the  early  study,  such,  for 
instance,  as  latitude  and  longitude,  should  be  omitted. 
They  have  also  found  that  many  other  minor  subjects 
usually  presented  are  comparatively  irrelevant  to  the 
geographical  knowledge  necessary  to  a  pupil.  By  setting 
these  aside  for  the  time,  space  has  been  secured  for  a 
physiographic  basis,  and  for  a  fairly  close  sequence  in 
tracing  the  effects  of  physical  conditions  upon  plants  and 
animals,  and  also  upon  mankind.  Throughout  each 'chap- 
ter much  care  has  been  taken  to  present  a  closely  related 
chain  of  thought,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the  leading 
facts  in  their  proper  foreground. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  HOME  STUDY. — A  study 
of  books  alone  can  never  furnish  an  adequate  knowl- 
edge of  geography.  Therefore  it  has  been  thought  ex- 
pedient to  add  numerous  suggestions  at  the  end  of  each 
section,  in  order  to  remind  both  teacher  and  pupil  of 
suitable  excursions,  experiments,  etc.,  and  to  show  at  the 
same  time  the  breadth  of  the  subject.  In  this  way  physi- 
cal activity  —  the  love  of  exercise  —  may  be  employed 
in  the  service  of  the  study,  and  a  habit  of  investigating 
the  home  environment  encouraged. 

FREQUENT  REVIEWS.  —  Believing  in  the  value  of  fre- 
quent reviews,  the  authors  have  suggested  review  material 
in  frequent  comparisons  and  contrasts,  and  in  introduc- 
ing new  topics  through  others  that  have  already  been  pre- 
sented. This  method  has  been  used  throughout  this  book, 
and  more  extensively  still  in  the  volumes  that  follow. 


Viil  PREFACE 

MAPS.  —  The  succeeding  volumes  in  the  series  are  of 
the  same  size  as  the  present  one.  Our  reasons  for  this 
marked  innovation  are  that  the  old  form  is  both  unneces- 
sary and  unwieldy.  The  main  excuse  for  the  size  of  the 
common  geography  is  the  supposed  need  of  large  maps,  a 
need  which  should  be  supplied  by  atlas  and  wall  maps. 
This  supposed  requirement  has  led  to  the  introduction  of 
so  many  names,  entirely  unnecessary  to  pupils,  that  the 
purpose  of  a  school  book  has  generally  been  sacrificed  to 
that  of  a  cheap  atlas.  Why  should  a  map,  intended  for 
school  children,  contain  such  Servian  names  as  Valievo, 
Kragouye'vatz,  Ushitze,  and  Kruchevatz,  four  neighboring 
words  upon  an  overcrowded  map  in  one  of  the  much-used 
geographies?  Such  piling  up  of  names,  which  carry  no 
meaning  to  the  pupil  and  are  distinguished  by  no  idea, 
merely  distract  attention  from  the  important  names  and 
features.  Aside  from  that,  the  old  form  of  geography  is 
distinctly  objectionable  because  of  its  size,  which  makes 
it  difficult  to  handle  and  to  carry.  When  open,  it  occu- 
pies nearly  the  entire  surface  of  the  desk ;  and,  being  so 
unwieldy,  it  is  the  most  easily  damaged  of  all  the  school 
books  in  use. 

The  most  pertinent  inquiry  in  regard  to  the  maps  of 
a  text-book  of  geography  should  refer  not  to  their  size, 
but  to  their  quality.  In  respect  to  the  excellence  of  maps 
we  challenge  comparison.  We  believe  that  our  maps  are 
the  best  thus  far  printed  in  an  American  geography. 
While  thoroughly  artistic,  they  cause  the  essential  fea- 
tures to  stand  out  with  surprising  distinctness.  Contrary 
to  the  usual  custom,  the  political  maps  include  the  prin- 
cipal physical  features,  so  that  any  place  is  always  seen 
in  connection  with  its  physiographic  surroundings.  The 


PREFACE  ix 

colors  have  been  so  selected  as  to  secure  harmony,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  show  the  boundaries  clearly.  Unimpor- 
tant names  are  excluded,  even  where  space  might  have 
permitted  their  introduction ;  and,  to  an  unusual  degree, 
the  size  of  print  is  proportionate  to  the  importance  of 
places,  so  that  the  names  of  leading  divisions,  cities,  etc., 
can  be  distinguished  at  a  glance. 

ILLUSTRATIONS.  —  The  illustrations  have  been  selected 
with  great  care  to  illustrate  specific  points ;  and  for  the 
sake  of  accuracy,  photographs  have  in  most  cases  been 
employed.  They  are  not  inserted  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  entertainment,  but  in  every  case  bear  a  direct  relation- 
ship to  the  text.  They  are  not  intended  as  mere  pictures, 
but  as  illustrations ;  and  being  numbered  and  referred  to 
frequently,  they  pay  for  their  space  by  contributing  mate- 
rially to  the  book's  fund  of  instruction. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.  —  The  photographs  have  been  ob- 
tained from  many  sources ;  the  globe  drawings  were  made 
by  Mr.  Murray  of  the  Matthews-Northrup  Co. ;  and  the 
other  drawings  were  mostly  prepared  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Fur- 
long, instructor  in  Cornell  University.  The  maps  have 
been  prepared  by  the  Matthews-Northrup  Co.  of  Buffalo, 
who  have  obtained  an  enviable  reputation  as  map  engravers 
for  the  Century  Atlas. 

The  authors  of  this  book  are  responsible  for  any  short- 
comings that  it  may  prove  to  have.  They  have  had  the 
benefit  of  much  criticism  of  the  best  sort.  Space  does 
not  permit  them  to  refer  to  each  one  who  has  kindly 
extended  aid;  yet  mention  should  be  made  of  the  ex- 
ceedingly valuable  criticisms  and  suggestions  of  Mr. 
Philip  Emerson  of  the  Cobbet  School,  Lynn,  Mass. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
PART  I.    HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

PAGE 

SECTION         I.  THE  SOIL         ........  1 

SECTION       II.     HILLS 10 

SECTION      III.     MOUNTAINS 17 

SECTION      IV.     VALLEYS 28 

SECTION       V.     RIVERS 39 

SECTION      VI.  PONDS  AND  LAKES  .         .         .         .         .         .         .53 

SECTION    VII.     THE  OCEAN 62 

SECTION  VIII.     THE  Am 71 

SECTION      IX.  INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE       .....  81 

SECTION        X.  GOVERNMENT    ........  92 

SECTION      XI.     MAPS 102 

REFERENCES  TO  BOOKS,  ETC 108 

PAET  II.     THE  EAETH  AS  A  WHOLE 

SECTION  I.     FORM  AND  SIZE  OP  THE  EARTH   .         .        .         .        .111 

ITS  FORM,  111.     SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH,  113. 

SECTION  II.     DAILY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  RESULTS       .     115 
THE  Axis  AND  POLES,  115.      THE  EQUATOR,  116.      GRAVITY, 
116.     SUNRISE  AND  SUNSET,  117.     DAY  AND  NIGHT,  117. 

SECTION  III.     THE  ZONES 120 

BOUNDARIES  OF  THE  ZONES,  120.      TORRID  ZONE,  121.      TEM- 
PERATE ZONES,  121.    FRIGID  ZONES,  122.    HEMISPHERES,  123. 
SECTION  IV.     HEAT  WITHIN  THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  EFFECTS      .        .     124 
HEAT  IN  MINES,   124.      MELTED  ROCK,   125.      THE   EARTH'S 
CRUST,  125.     CAUSE  OF  MOUNTAINS,  125.     CAUSE  OF  CONTI- 
xi 


-84558 


xii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

NENTS  AND  OCEAN  BASINS,  126.     CHANGE  IN  THE  LEVEL  OP 
THE  LAND,  126. 

SECTION  V.     THE  CONTINENTS  AND  OCEANS     .....     128 
LAND  AND  WATER,  128.     The  Continents,  128.    NORTH  AMER- 
ICA, 129.     SOUTH  AMERICA,  129.      EURASIA,  131.     AFRICA, 

132.  AUSTRALIA,   132.      The  Oceans,   133.      THE  ARCTIC 
AND  ANTARCTIC,  133.      THE  ATLANTIC,  133.     THE  PACIFIC, 

133.  THE  INDIAN,  134.     THE  OCEAN  BOTTOM,  134.     MOUN- 
TAINS IN  THE  OCEANS,  135.     CORAL  ISLANDS,  135. 

SECTION    VI.     MAPS 137 

SECTION  VII.     NORTH  AMERICA 138 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  138.     POLITICAL  DIVISIONS,  139. 

SECTION  VIII.     THE  UNITED  STATES 141 

SECTION      IX.     NEW  ENGLAND 142 

NAMES,  142.      SEAPORTS,  142.      FISHING,  143.      FARMING,  143. 
QUARRYING,  144.     LUMBERING,  144.     MANUFACTURING,  146. 
COMMERCE,  147. 
SECTION  X.     MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES  ......     149 

THE  COAST  LINE,  149.  THE  SEAPORTS,  149.  Reasons  for  the 
Great  Size  of  New  York  City,  149.  CITIES  NEAR  BY,  149. 
WATER  ROUTE  TO  THE  INTERIOR,  150.  LUMBERING,  151. 
FARMING,  151.  SALT,  152.  MANUFACTURING,  152.  COM- 
MERCE, 153.  Reasons  why  Philadelphia  has  become  a 
Great  City,  153.  CITIES  NEAR  BY,  153.  FARMING,  153. 
IRON,  154.  COAL,  154.  OIL*  AND  GAS,  155.  COMMERCE,  156. 
Other  Cities,  156.  BALTIMORE,  156.  WASHINGTON,  156. 
VIRGINIA  AND  WEST  VIRGINIA,  157. 

SECTION  XL     SOUTHERN  STATES 159 

RELIEF,  159.  COAL  AND  IRON,  160.  COTTON,  160.  RANCH- 
ING, 161.  SUGAR  AND  RICE,  162.  FRUITS,  162.  LUMBER- 
ING, 162.  MANUFACTURING,  163.  NEW  ORLEANS,  163. 
OTHER  SEAPORTS,  165.  OKLAHOMA  AND  INDIAN  TERRITORY, 
165.  CLIMATE,  166. 

SECTION  XII.     CENTRAL  STATES 167 

RAW  PRODUCTS,  167.  THE  MANUFACTURING  AND  TRADE  CEN- 
TRES, 170.  REVIEW  AND  COMPARISONS,  175. 

SECTION  XIII.     WESTERN  STATES 176 

REASONS  WHY  THERE  ARE  so  FEW  PEOPLE,  176.     WONDERFUL 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

SCENERY,  178.  MINING,  179.  RANCHING,  181.  THE  DESERT, 
182.  IRRIGATION,  182.  FRUIT  RAISING,  183.  INDUSTRIES 
ALONG  THE  PACIFIC  COAST,  184.  THE  ClTIES  OF  THE  PACIFIC 
COAST,  185. 

SECTION  XIV.     ALASKA 188 

SECTION    XV.     CANADA   AND   OTHER  COUNTRIES   NORTH    OF   THE 

UNITED  STATES 190 

Canada  and  Newfoundland,  1 90.    INDUSTRIES,  190.     CITIES, 
192.      THE   FAR  NORTH,  192.      Islands  North   of  North 
America,  193. 

SECTION  XVI.     COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     .         .     195 
MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  195.     THE  WEST  INDIES  AND 

BERMUDA,  197. 
SECTION  XVII.     SOUTH  AMERICA     .......     199 

RELIEF,  199.  .CLIMATE,  200.  HISTORY,  200.  BRAZIL,  201. 
VENEZUELA  AND  GUIANA,  202.  LA  PLATA  COUNTRIES,  203. 
ANDEAN  COUNTRIES,  204. 

SECTION  XVIII.     EUROPE 207 

THE  BRITISH  ISLES,  207.  NORSE  COUNTRIES,  211.  RUSSIA, 
212.  GERMANY,  214.  HOLLAND,  216.  BELGIUM,  217. 
FRANCE,  217.  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL,  219.  ITALY,  220. 
SWITZERLAND,  222.  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  223.  GREECE,  224. 
TURKEY,  225. 

SECTION  XIX.     ASIA 230 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  230.     SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA,  231.     SIBE- 
RIA, 234.     THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  AND  KOREA,  235.     JAPAN, 
237.     INDIA  AND  JNDO-CHINA,  238. 
SECTION  XX.     AFRICA      .........     242 

THE  DARK  CONTINENT,  242.     NORTHERN  AFRICA,  243.      CEN- 
TRAL AFRICA,  246.     SOUTH  AFRICA,  246. 
SECTION  XXI.     AUSTRALIA,  THE   EAST   INDIES,   PHILIPPINES,   AND 

OTHER  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC     ......     249 

AUSTRALIA,  249.  THE  EAST  INDIES,  252.  THE  PHILIPPINE 
ISLANDS,  253.  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC,  254. 

BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE .        ,  256 

APPENDIX  —  TABLES  OF  AREA,  POPULATION,  ETC 262 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

FIGURE                                                                                                                                                                          FACING  PAGE 

91.  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THE  MEANING  OF  MAPS  .....  107 

119.  THE  HEMISPHERES     . 137 

120.  MERCATOR  MAP  OP  THE  WORLD 137 

121.  RELIEF  MAP  OF  NORTH  AMERICA    ....     On  page  138 

123.  NORTH  AMERICA         .         .         *         ......  140 

124.  UNITED  STATES 141 

125.  NEW  ENGLAND 142 

132.  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES        .......  149 

140.  SOUTHERN  STATES 159 

148.  CENTRAL  STATES 167 

157.  WESTERN  STATES 176 

177.  SOUTH  AMERICA 199 

183.  EUROPE       .                          207 

203.  ASIA 230 

214.  AFRICA 242 

221.  AUSTRALIA,  EAST  INDIES,  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  AND  ISLANDS 

OF  THE  PACIFIC  .                          ....                 .  249 


xv 


PAET   I 
HOME   GEOGRAPHY 

I.    THE    SOIL 

You  have  often  played  in  the  dirt.  Did  you  ever  stop 
to  think  what  it  is  made  of?  It  was  not  always  what  it 
now  is.  You  know  that  the  wood  in  your  desk  was  not 
always  a  part  of  the  desk ;  it  used  to  be  part  of  a  tree, 
and  has  a  long  story  to  tell  about  itself  before  it  was 
brought  to  your  school.  So  all  the  dirt  or  soil  that 
you  have  ever  seen  has  a  long  story  to  tell  about  how 
it  became  what  it  is  now.  Let  us  see  what  that  story 
is. 

When  mud  dries  upon  your  hands  and  you  rub  them 
together,  you  can  notice  an  unpleasant,  gritty  feeling. 
This  is  caused  by  the  scraping  together  of  hard  bits  of 
something  in  the  soil.  If  you  rub  some  of  this  dirt 
against  a  smooth  piece  of  glass,  you  can  often  hear  it 
scratch  the  glass.  This  shows  that  these  little  bits  must 
be  very  hard,  for  if  they  were  not,  they  could  not  scratch 
anything  so  hard  as  glass.  They  must  be  even  harder 
than  a  pin,  for  you  cannot  scratch  glass  with  a  pin. 

It  will  help  you  to  find  out  what  these  bits  are  if  you 
examine  some  sand.  The  grains  in  it  are  tiny  bits  of 
rock,  large  enough  to  be  clearly  seen.  When  they  are 


2  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

rubbed  'against  glass,  they  scratch  it,  because  they  are 
hard  and  sharp. 

Sand  is  made  of  rock  that  has  been  broken  up  into 
very  fine  pieces.  Soil  is  also  made  of  rock,  but  the 
pieces  are  finer  still.  The  soil  that  you  have  seen,  such 
as  that  in  the  schoolyard,  or  by  the  side  of  the  walk,  was 
once  rock. 

Soil  has  bee^^  made  from  rock. 

Since  soil  is  found  almost  everywhere,  you  may  wonder 
how  so  much  rock  has  been  changed  to  it.  The  answer  is 
not  hard  to  find.  Did  you  ever  pound  a  brick  up  into 
bits  until  you  made  brick-dust?  You  can  change  a  stone 
to  dust  in  the  same  way.  Break  one  into  small  bits  and 
see  how  much  it  resembles  dirt. 

Sometimes  one  sees  men  drilling  holes  into  stone ;  the  tiny  pieces 
that  are  broken  off  collect  in  and  round  the  hole,  and  look  much  like 
dirt.  When  a  grindstone  is  used  to  sharpen  tools,  small  pieces  of  the 
stone  are  ground  off,  and  if  water  is  poured  upon  it,  this  dust  makes 
the  water  muddy,  just  as  soil  would. 

Much  rock  has  been  changed  to  dirt  by  the  rubbing  of 
pieces  of  stone  against  one  another.  In  this  way  tiny 
bits  have  been  worn  off,  as  chalk  is  worn  away  when 
rubbed  against  the  blackboard,  or  slate  pencils  against  the 
slate.  Perhaps  some  of  the  dirt  that  you  have  seen  has 
been  made  in  this  manner.  Later  you  will  learn  about 
the  glaciers  which  have  caused  much  of  this  rubbing. 

The  grinding,  of  rocks  together  has  made  much  soil. 

But  this  is  not  the  only  way  in  which  rock  has  been 
changed  into  soil.  Much  of  it  has  decayed  and  fallen  to 
pieces  as  wood  does.  You  know  that,  after  a  long  time, 
stumps  of  trees,  and  the  boards  in  sidewalks,  grow  so 


THE  SOIL 


FIG.  1. 
A  decaying  stump  of  a  tree. 


soft  that  they  fall  to  pieces.     Perhaps  you  have  called 

it   rotting,  but   this  means  the  same  as  decaying.     The 

picture  (Fig.  1)  shows  such  a 

stump. 

Other    things    even    harder 

than  wood  decay  in  much  the 

same    way,    although    perhaps 

more   slowly.      Hard   nails,  at 

first   bright    and  shiny,   decay 

until  they  become  a  soft,  yel- 
low fust.      Iron  pipes  and  tin 

pails  rust  until  holes  appear  in 

them  and  they  leak. 

You  may  not  have  thought  that  stones  also  decay,  but 

they  do.  The  headstones 
in  old  graveyards  are 
often  so  crumbled  that 
the  letters  can  scarcely  be 
read,  and  sometimes  the 
stones  have  even  fallen 
apart.  The  decay  of  rock 
may  also  be  seen  in  old 
stone  buildings,  boulders, 
and  rock  cliffs.  Have  you 
ever  noticed  this  ? 

Soil  has  been  formed, 
also,  by  the  decay  of 
rocks. 

A  rocky  cliff  containing  many  cracks.  There    are    several    thinSs 

Point  to  some  of  them.  that  help  to  cause  this  decay. 

All  rocks  have  cracks  in  them 

(Fig.  2).    Usually  some  of  these  are  so  large  that  they  can  be  plainly 
seen;   but  there  are  many  others  so  tiny  that  they  cannot  be  seen 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


without  a  magnifying  glass.  When  it  rains,  the  water  steals  into 
them,  and  by  eating  and  rotting  the  rock,  very  slowly  changes  it  to 
a  powder. 

The  water  may  also  freeze  in  these  cracks  and  pry  the  stone  apart. 
If  you  have  seen  iron  water  pipes,  or  water  pitchers,  burst  in  cold 
weather,  you  know  how  this  is  done.  Some  of  the  pieces  of  rock 
pried  off  in  this  way  are  very  small,  others  quite  large  (Fig.  3). 

Plants  help  the 
water  in  th  is 
work.  In  search 
of  food  they  push 
their  hair  -  like 
roots  into  the 
cracks,  and  there 
remain  until  they 
grow  so  large 
that  they  also  pry 
off  pieces. 

The  earth- 
worms that  you 
may  often  see 

after  a  heavy  rain 
Pieces  of  rock  broken  from  a  cliff  by  the  weather.  Can  ,  ,  ,  .  ' 

you  also  see  the  cracks  in  the  rock  of  the  cliff? 

Find  some  broken  pieces  in  Fig.  2.  "ling  the  rock. 

In  order  to  get 

food,  they  take  soil  into  their  bodies  and  grind  the  coarse  bits  together 
until  they  become  very  fine. 

Water  stealing  into  the  cracks  causes  rock  to  decay 
and  crumble.  Plants  and  earthworms  also  help  to  break 
it  up. 

Rock  changes  to  soil  most  rapidly  near  the  surface  ; 
for  the  rain,  roots  of  plants,  and  earthworms  can  reach 
it  more  easily  there  than  elsewhere.  So  the  deeper  into 
the  earth  one  goes,  the  less  the  rock  is  changed  (Fig.  4) ; 
and,  no  matter  where  you  live,  if  you  should  dig  deep 
enough,  you  would  come  to  solid  rtfck. 


FIG.  3. 


Til  K   SOIL 


FIG.  4. 

A  section,  as  if  the  earth  were  sliced  through,  like  a  loaf  of  bread,  so  that  the 
part  below  the  surface  is  seen.  Tell  what  you  see  in  this  picture.  Notice 
the  roots  of  the  tree  on  the  left  side. 

Fig.  5  shows   soil  about  one  and  one-half  feet  deep. 
Sometimes  there  is  much  more  than  this,  and  men  may 


FIG.  5. 
A  picture  showing  solid  rock  beneath  the  soil.    Notice  the  cracks  in  the  rock. 


6  HOME  GEOGEAPHY 

even  dig  deep  wells  without  finding  rock ;  but  in  many 
places  there  are  only  a  few  inches  of  soil,  or,  sometimes, 
not  even  enough  to  hide  the  rock. 

'One  reason  for  such  differences  in  the  depth  of  soil  is  that  some 
rocks  decay  more  easily  than  others.  Another  reason  is  that  in  some 
places  the  rain  washes  the  bits  away  as  fast  as  the  rocks  crumble. 
This  may  leave  the  rock  quite  bare  in  one  place  and  make  the  soil 
very  deep  in  another. 

There  is  solid  rock  beneath  all  soil. 

How  different  it  would  be  if  no  rock  had  ever  changed 
into  soil  !  There  could  then  be  no  grass,  flowers,  or  trees 
around  your  home,  because  they  grow  by  means  of  the 
food  that  they  get  from  the  soil. 

Without  grass  there  could  be  no  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep  ; 
in  fact,  few  animals  such  as  are  found  upon  the  land  could 
live  ;  for  what  would  they  eat  ?  What,  then,  could  you 
yourself  find  to  eat  ?  There  would  be  no  vegetables,  no 
bread,  butter,  and  milk,  and  no  meat.  You  see  that,  if 
there  were  no  soil,  few  people  could  live  ;  so  that  the 
dirt  under  our  feet  is  a  very  valuable  substance. 

Without  soil,  few  plants,  animals,  or  people  could  live 
on  the  land. 

Soil  is  needed  by  plants  because  it  holds  water.  They 
become  thirsty  as  well  as  you.  Where  the  dirt  is  only 
a  few  inches  deep,  it  may  dry  out  on  hot  summer  days, 
and  then  the  plants  die  ;  but  where  it  is  deep,  the  roots 
may  reach  down  several  feet  till  they  find  damp  earth. 

It  is  surprising  how  long  the  roots  of  some  small  plants  are 
(Fig.  6).  For  example,  the  clover  in  the  picture  is  less  than  a  foot 
high,  but  its  roots  are  longer  than  you  are  tall.  They  reach  so  deep 
down  that  even  in  dry  weather  the  clover  is  green  while  other  plants, 
with  shorter  roots,  are  withered  and  dry.  Some  trees  push  their  roots 


THE  SOIL 


down  a  greater  distance  still.     Can  you  find  out  how  long  the  roots 
of  any  weeds  are  ? 

The  soil  holds  food,  as  well  as  water,  for  plants.  In  it 
is  found  something  which  plants  need,  and  which  they 
take  up  through  their  roots  ;  it 
is  a  part  of  the  soil  itself,  and 
is  called  plant  food.  Each 
blade  of  grass  and  each  limb 
of  a  tree  contains  some  of  it ; 
and  when  a  piece  of  wood  is 
burned,  some  of  this  food  is  left 
behind  in  the  ashes. 

Every  person  even  has  a  quan- 
tity of  it  in  his  body  ;  your 
bones  and  teeth  are  partly  made 
of  it.  But  you  did  not  take  it 
directly  from  the  soil ;  the  plants 
took  it  for  you,  and  you  received 
it  from  them  in  flour  and  other 
foods  that  you  have  eaten. 

Soil  furnishes  water  and  food 
to  plants. 

All  plants  do  not  need  the 
same  kind  of  food  any  more 
than  all  animals  do.  Horses 
eat  hay  and  grain,  while  dogs 
eat  meat  ;  so  some  plants  need 
one  kind  of  food,  others  another.  These  different  kinds 
of  plant  food  are  found  in  the  different  kinds  of  soil,  of 
which  there  are  very  many. 

For  example,  some  soils  are  fine,  while  others  are  coarse,  because 
some  rocks  have  crumbled  to  finer  bits  than  others.     Then,  too,  there 


FIG.  6. 

Some  of  the  roots  of  the  clover 
that  the  hoy  is  picking  have 
reached  out  into  the  air 
through  the  side  of  the  bank. 
They  were  seeking  water. 


8  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

are  many  kinds  of  rock,  such  as  granite,  marble,  and  sandstone  ;  and 
when  they  decay  they  make  different  kinds  of  soil. 

In  some  places  great  numbers  of  plants  have  grown  up  and  died/ 
During  their  growth  they  took  substances  from  the  air,  as  well  as 
from  the  soil,  and  when  they  died  and  decayed  they  returned  some 
of  these  to  the  soil.  These  plant  remains  have  become  mingled  with 
the  soil,  making  it  dark  and  sometimes  almost  black.  In  some  places 
this  dark-colored  layer  may  be  several  feet  deep,  as  in  forests,  or  in 
swamps,  where  plants  have  been  growing  and  decaying  for  hundreds 
of  years.  This  is  an  excellent  soil  for  farming,  because  it  produces 
large  crops. 

TJiere  are  many  different  kinds  of  soil. 

Soil  that  has  much  plant  food  in  it  is  said  to  be  rich  or 
fertile  ;  if  it  has  little,  it  is  said  to  be  poor  or  sterile.  The 
plants  are  taking  away  some  of  this  food;  they  are  really 
robbing  the  soil.  But  when  weeds  and  trees  fall  and 
decay  on  the  spot  where  they  grew,  they  pay  back  what 
they  took  away.  In  fact,  some  of  this  food  is  returned  to 
the  earth  every  autumn  when  the  leaves  fall  from  the  trees. 

But  if  plants  are  carried  away  from  the  spot  where 
they  grew,  there  is  danger  lest  fertile  land  shall  be  robbed 
of  so  much  plant  food  that  it  will  become  sterile.  Now 
this  often  happens;  for  farmers  send  away  their  wheat  to 
make  flour,  and  haul  their  corn,  hay,  and  oats  to  market. 
Some  farmers  have  done  this  for  so  many  years  that  they 
are  no  longer  able  to  support  their  families  on  their  land, 
but  have  been  obliged  to  move  away  to  find  other  farms 
where  the  soil  has  not  been  robbed  of  its  plant  food. 

The  wise  farmer  takes  care  to  put  some  plant  food  back  upon  the 
soil  to  pay  for  what  he  has  taken,  so  that  he  may  continue  to  raise 
good  crops.  That  which  he  puts  back  upon  the  soil  is  called  a 
fertilizer,  because  it  keeps  the  soil  fertile.  People  in  the  city  often 
use  a  fertilizer  to  feed  the  grass  of  their  lawns  and  keep  it  green. 

Fertile  soil  may  be  robbed  of  its  food  and  become  sterile. 


I  X 

THE  SOIL  9 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Of  what  is  the  soil  made  ?  (2)  How  can 
you  show  that  the  little  bits  in  it  are  hard  like  rock  V  (3)  What  hap- 
pens when  rocks  are  rubbed  together?  (4)  If  you  have  ever  seen 
rocks  that  were  decaying  and  crumbling,  tell  about  it.  (5)  How 
does  water  enter  rocks?  (6)  What  happens  when  water  freezes  in  the 
cracks?  (7)  What  else  helps  to  crumble  the  rocks  and  soil?  (8)  What 
is  beneath  the  soil?  (9)  Make  a  drawing,  like  Figure  4,  showing  the 
rock  beneath  the  soil.  (10)  Tell  about  the  depth  of  the  soil.  (11)  Why 
is  there  no  soil  in  some  places  ? 

(12)  Why  is  the  soil  wrorth  studying?  (13)  Name  two  things  that 
plants  take  from  it.  (14)  Of  what  advantage  is  a  deep  soil?  (15)  Do 
all  plants  want  the  same  kind  of  food?  (10)  What  causes  the  different 
kinds  of  soil  ?  (17)  What  has  made  some  soils  so  black  ?  (18)  What 
is  fertile  soil?  (19)  Sterile  soil?  (20)  How  are  some  soils  robbed  of 
their  plant  food  ?  (21)  What  is  used  to  make  them  fertile  once  more  ? 
(22)  Tell  what  you  see  in  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AT  HOME  AND  OUT  OF  DOORS.— 
Here  are  things,  some  of  -which,  at  least,  you  will  be  able  to 
see  or  do  for  yourselves :  (1)  Find  a  place  where  men  are  dig- 
ging a  ditch  or  cellar,  to  see  how  the  dirt  looks  below  the  surface. 
(2)  Find  a  boulder,  cliff,  old  stone  wall,  or  an  old  headstone  in  a  grave- 
yard, and  see  if  the  stone  is  crumbling.  (3)  Break  some  pebbles 
open  to  see  whether  or  not  they  are  decayed  on  the  outside  and 
fresh  within.  (4)  Change  a  stone  to  dust.  (5)  Collect  several  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  soil.  (6)  Plant  beans  in  each  kind,  at  the  same  time, 
and  see  in  which  one  they  grow  best.  (7)  See  what  the  effect  would 
be  if  no  water  were  given  to  some  of  them.  (8)  Find  out  what  trees 
and  vegetables  grow  best  near  your  home.  (9)  WThat  do  the  farmers 
prefer  to  raise?  (10)  Go  to  a  hot-house  to  find  out  what  kind  of 
soil  is  used  there,  and  what  is  done  to  keep  it  fertile.  (11)  Visit  a 
gardener  or  a  farmer  to  find  out  how  he  cultivates  the  soil.  (12)  How 
many  articles  can  you  name,  as  crockery,  for  example,  that  are  made 
of  soil  or  clay?  (13)  Write  a  short  story  about  the  soil. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  108. 


II.    HILLS 

THE  soil  that  lias  been  formed  from  rock  has  not  been 
left  smooth  and  level  like  a  floor.  The  surface  of  the 
land  is  usually  uneven  or  rolling ;  and  even  those  places 
which  at  first  sight  appear  level,  are  really  sloping 
(Fig.  7).  Beside  such  gentle  slopes,  there  are  many 


FIG.  7. 

A  very  level  plain ;  but  since  a  stream  is  flowing  through  it,  there  must  be 

slope. 

others  steep  enough  to  allow  coasting  in  winter,  and 
others  still  that  are  much  too  steep  for  this  purpose.  In 
other  words,  hills,  some  gently  sloping,  some  steep,  are 
found  almost  everywhere  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth 
(Fig.  8). 

These  hills  have  not  always  been  here.  Even  the  ones 
you  may  have  seen  and  climbed  have  been  slowly  made. 
Let  us  see  what  has  caused  them. 

When  it  rains  slightly,  the  water  soaks  into  the  ground 
and  disappears;  but  when  there  is  a  heavy  rain,  all  of  the 

IQ 


HILLS  11 

water  cannot  sink  into  the  soil  as  rapidly  as  it  falls.  Some 
then  begins  to  flow  away.  One  little  stream,  perhaps 
hardly  an  inchfwide,  begins  at  one  point;  another  joins 
it ;  quickly  several  of  them  unite,  and  soon  a  good  sized 


FIG.  8. 

A  picture  in  a  hilly  country.    The  surface  of  the  lake  is  level ;  but  the  hills, 
some  steep,  others  gently  sloping,  are  very  irregular. 

brook  or  creek  is  formed.  Have  you  not  noticed  this 
flowing  water  in  the  school  yard,  in  the  roads,  and  on  the 
sides  of  hills  ? 

But  did  the  water  flow  off  without  taking  something 
with  it  ?  Was  it  not  muddy  ?  This  means  that  soil  had 
become  mixed  with  the  water  and  was  being  borne  away. 
Every  heavy  rain  bears  along  much  soil,  cutting  out  little 
channels,  washing  out  roads,  and  perhaps  even  destroying 
the  beds  of  railways,  so  that  trains  must  stop  running  for 
a  time. 

During  such  a  rain  little  channels,  or  valleys,  and  tiny 
hills  and  ridges  are  carved  in  the  soil  (Fig.  9).  No 
doubt  you  have  seen  these  formed  very  many  times.  If 
not,  you  can  easily  make  them  by  pouring  water  from  a 
sprinkler  upon  a  pile  of  loose  dirt. 

There  are  many  heavy  rains  every  year,  and  in  a  life- 
time their  number  is  very  large.  During  many  hundreds 
of  years,  then,  the  water  could  wash  away  an  enormous 


12  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

amount  of  soil  and  rock  which  the  large  streams  and 
rivers  would  carry  away  to  the  sea.  By  this  means  deep 
valleys  have  been  formed,  with  hills  between  them,  much 
as  the  tiny  channels  in  the  school  yard  are  cut  in  the  dirt 
by  the  rain  water. 

Then,  also,  some  rocks  are  not  so  hard  as  others,  and 
the  softer  ones,  as  they  break  up,  are  naturally  carried 
away  faster  than  those  that  are  harder.  This  leaves  high 
ground  where  the  rocks  are  hardest. 


FIG.  9. 
Little  hills  and  valleys  cut  in  the  soil  by  heavy  rains.    Point  to  some  of  them. 

What  a  change  water  must  have  made  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  surface  of  the  earth  !  No  doubt,  in  the 
very  beginning  there  were  hills  and  valleys ;  but  every 
year,  for  thousands  of  years,  these  have  been  slowly 
changing,  so  that  they  are  now  very  different  from  what 
they  were  long  ago.  And  after  many  more  years  they 
will  be  very  different  from  what  they  now  are,  for  they 
are  even  now  changing. 

Most  hills  have  been  carved  out  by  running  water. 

In  every  neighborhood  there  are  hills,  although  they  may  not  be 
very  high.  The  picture  shows  one  with  a  somewhat  gentle  slope 


HILLS 


13 


(Fig.  10).  If  a  person  were  to  walk  up  this  hill,  going  from  its  base 
to  the  top,  or  summit,  he  would  walk  more  than  a  mile ;  but  this,  of 
course,  does  not  mean  that  the  hill  is  a  mile  high. 

For  example,  in 
Figure  11  you  see  a 
board  ten  feet  long, 
with  one  end  resting 
on  the  ground  and 
the  other  on  a  fence 
four  feet  above  the 
ground.  If  a  person 
starts  at  the  lower 
end  and  walks  to  the 
upper  end,  he  travels 


To  show  the  difference  between  the  slope  of  a  hill 
and  its  height. 


ten  feet;  but  he  is 
then  only  four  feet 
above  the  ground. 

The  height  of  a  hill  is  much  less  than  the  length  of 
its  slope. 

Perhaps  you  have  heard  that  it  is  colder  on  the  summit, 
or  crest,  of  a  high  hill  than  at  its  base.  If  one  takes  a 
thermometer  with  him  when  going  to  the  top  of  the 


FIG.  11. 


14 


HOME  GEOGEAPHY 


Washington  Monument  (Fig.  85),  which  is  550  feet  high, 
he  finds  that  it  is  about  two  degrees  colder  at  the  top 
than  at  the  base.  One  might  not  notice  any  difference 
in  climbing  low  hills,  but  it  can  be  easily  noticed  on  high 
ones ;  and  if  your  home  is  near  one,  you  can  prove  this. 

People  who  live  where  there  are  high  hills  often  observe 
-that  it  snows  upon  them  while  it  rains  upon  the  lower 
ground  at  their  base  (Fig.  12).  Explain  why  this  is  so. 

It  is  colder  at  the  crest  of  a  hill  than  at  its  base. 


Do  you  see  any  reason  for  thinking  that  it  is  colder  near  the  summit  of  this 
high  mountain  than  at  its  base?  This  is  Mount  Chimborazo  in  South 
America,  where  it  is  very  hot  in  the  lowlands. 

Many  people  prefer  to  build  their  houses  upon  hills, 
partly  because  the  air  is  cooler  and  fresher  in  summer ; 
but  another  and  more  important  reason  is,  that  it  is  more 
healthful  to  live  on  this  high  ground.  Where  the  land 
is  low,  the  slope  is  often  so  gentle  that  the  water  cannot 
flow  off  readily,  so  it  stands,  sometimes  making  wet  places 
called  swamps  (Fig.  33).  Houses  in  such  places  often 
have  cellars  and  foundation  walls  that  are  damp,  and  the 
people  who  live  in  them  are  in  danger  of  fever,  and  of 
other  kinds  of  sickness  caused  by  this  dampness. 


HILLS 


15 


But  the  water  usually  runs  quickly  away  from  a  hill, 
so  that  even  after  a  heavy  rain  the  ground  soon  becomes 
dry.  In  large  cities,  where  land  is  very  expensive,  people 
build  almost  anywhere ;  but  in  these  cities  there  are  so 
many  drain  pipes,  or  sewers,  to  carry  off  the  water,  that 
even  the  low  places  are  quite  dry. 


FIG.  13. 
A  castle  built  upon  the  brow  of  a  high  hill.    Describe  the  view  from  there. 

In  times  past  some  men  were  in  the  habit  of  building  great 
castles,  with  thick  walls,  on  the  crests  of  hills  (Fig.  13).  From 
these  they  could  look  out  over  the  country  for  a  long  distance  and 
spy  approaching  enemies  in  time  to  prepare  for  them.  Then,  too, 
the  steep  sides  of  the  hills  were  difficult  for  the  enemy  to  climb,  so 
that  the  people  living  in  castles  on  hilltops  were  quite  safe. 

Some  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  built  their  towns  upon  the  tops  of 
steep  hills  in  order  to  be  safe  from  the  more  savage  Indians  who 
attacked  them.  For  much  the  same  reason  the  Puritans,  many  years 
ago,  were  in  the  habit  of  building  their  churches  upon  the  hilltops. 


16  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Hills  at  present  are  little  needed  for  such  a  purpose;  but  there 
is  another  reason  why  people  like  to  live  upon  them.  From  their 
tops  they  can  look  out  over  the  fields  for  long  distances  and  enjoy  the 
beautiful  views.  Have  you  yourself  ever  enjoyed  such  a  view? 

People  like  to  build  their  houses  upon  hills,  because 
it  is  healthful  there  and  the  views  are  beautiful. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Is  there  much  land  that  is  really  level? 
(2)  What  do  you  understand  by  rolling  land  ?  (3)  Were  the  hills 
that  you  know  always  there  ?  (4)  Have  you  seen  water  carrying  away 
soil?  If  so,  tell  about  it.  (5)  Explain  how  hills  have  been  made. 

(6)  What  is  the  base  of  a  hill?  (7)  The  summit  ?  (8)  Tell  what 
you  learn  from  Figure  10.  (9)  From  Figure  11.  (10)  Make  a  draw- 
ing somewhat  like  Fig.  11.  (11)  On  what  part  of  a  hill  is  it  coolest? 
(12)  How  could  you  prove  it?  (13)  Why  does  it  often  snow  on  hills 
while  it  rains  on  lower  land  near  by  ? 

(14)  What  is  a  swamp?  (15)  Why  should  not  houses  be  built  on 
swampy  ground  ?  (16)  Why  are  hills  liable  to  be  dry  ?  (17)  Why 
is  the  lowland  in  cities  usually  so  dry  ?  (18)  Why  have  castles  often 
been  built  on  hills?  (19)  Why  did  the  earlier  settlers  place  their 
churches  on  hills?  (20)  What  other  reasons  can  people  have  for 
wishing  to  look  far  out  over  the  country  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AT  HOME  AND  OUT  OF  DOORS.— 
(1)  Find  some  ground  about  your  home  that  seems  nearly  level. 
Is  it  really  level?  (2)  Where  is  the  longest  slope  in  your  neighbor- 
hood? The  steepest  one?  (3)  Watch  the  water  carrying  off:  soil 
after  a  rain.  Where  does  the  soil  go  ?  (4)  Write  a  story  about  it. 
(5)  Hunt  for  a  washout  after  a  heavy  rain.  (6)  Wliere  is  your 
highest  hill?  (7)  In  what  season  of  the  year  is  it  especially  pleasant 
to  live  on  a  hill  ?  Why? 

(8)  Can  you  find  any  houses  built  on  low,  wet  soil?  (9)  Are 
their  cellars  ever  very  damp?  (10)  Ask  some  doctor  why  one  should 
not  live  in  such  places.  (11)  Find  some  pictures  of  castles,  showing 
their  location.  (12)  Is  your  schoolhouse  upon  a  hill  ?  (13)  Name  any 
houses  in  your  neighborhood  that  stand  on  a  hill.  (14)  Where  is 
your  most  beautiful  view?  (15)  Do  your  friends  agree  with  you  that 
it  is  the  most  beautiful  one  ? 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  108. 


III.    MOUNTAINS 

You  may  never  yet  have  seen  mountains,  but  you 
have  certainly  seen  something  that  looks  much  like  them. 
Often,  on  a  summer  evening,  the  sun  sets  behind  great 
banks  of  clouds  that  reach  far  up  into  the  sky.  Some  of 
them  have  rough,  steep  sides,  and  great,  rugged  peaks, 


FIG.  14. 
A  scene  among  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire. 

while  others  have  more  gentle  slopes,  and  rounder  tops. 
Oftentimes  there  are  many  of  them  together,  and  they  are 
so  real  that  it  seems  as  if  one  might  climb  their  sides  if 
he  could  only  reach  them. 

This  is  very  much  the  way  snow-covered  mountains 
appear  in  the  distance  ;  in  fact,  the  resemblance  is  so 
close  that,  when  one  is  at  a  distance  from  mountains,  he 
must  often  look  carefully  to  note  whether  he  is  looking  at 
real  mountains,  or  only  at  clouds  in  the  sky. 

The  mountains  in  Fig.  14  are  much  like  hills,  except 
that  they  are  larger.  Hills  are  seldom  more  than  a  few 
c  17 


18 


HOME  GEOGEAPHT 


hundred  feet  high,  while  these  mountains  rise  two  or  three 
thousand  feet  in  height.     Some  mountains  are  so  low,  and 

their  slopes  so 
gentle,  that  one 
is  able  to  climb  to 
their  tops  with- 
out much  trou- 
ble. Such  moun- 
tains are  often 
called  hills.  But 
many  others  are 
even  two  or  three 
miles  in  height. 
Their  peaks  rise 
far  above  the 
clouds  and  are 
often  wholly  hid- 
den by  them,  as 
in  Figure  15. 

Usually  where 
there  is  one 
mountain  peak  there  are  others  near  by  (Fig.  16).  They 
often  extend  a  long  distance,  perhaps  hundreds  of  miles, 


FIG.  15. 

A  mountain  peak  in  Switzerland,  with  snow  on  its 
sides  and  base,  and  a  small  cloud  hiding  the  very 
summit. 


FIG.  16. 
A  number  of  lofty  mountain  peaks  near  together. 


MOUNTAINS 


19 


forming  what  is  called  a  mountain  chain,  or  a  mountain 
range. 

Such  great  ranges  have  not  been  carved  out  by  running  water, 
as  hills  have  been.  In  fact,  real  mountains  are  found  only  where 
parts  of  the  land  have  been  slowly  raised  or  lowered  until  some 
portions  are  much  higher  than  the  surrounding  country  (Fig.  17). 
Among  these  moun- 
tains, as  elsewhere, 
running  water  has 
of  course  cut  out 
many  valleys. 

You  can  imitate 
mountain  folding  by 
crumpling  a  num- 
ber of  sheets  of  pa- 
per. The  reason  for 
this  folding  of  the 
rock  layers  will  be 
found  stated  on 


FIG.  \\ 


This  is  a  drawing  of  a  mountain  range  sliced  through 
so  as  to  show  the  layers  of  rock  that  have  been 
pushed  upward. 


page  125. 

Mountains  are  masses  of  rock  that  have  been  pushed 
above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country. 

Men  often  climb  to  the  tops  of  mountains.  It  might 
seem  that  this  would  not  take  a  very  long  time,  nor  be 
very  difficult ;  but  to  go  to  the  crest  of  even  a  low  moun- 
tain is  often  quite  a  task.  Upon  a  level  road  one  can 
easily  walk  a  mile  in  less  than  half  an  hour.  But  it  might 
require  a  whole  day  of  steady  climbing  to  reach  the  sum- 
mit of  a  mountain  only  one  mile  high. 

It  would  be  a  long  journey  even  if  one  could  go  in  a 
straight  line  to  the  top.  It  has  already  been  stated  (page 
13)  that  to  climb  a  hill  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high 
it  is  necessary  to  walk  a  longer  distance  than  this.  The 
same  is  true  of  mountains. 


20 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Most  mountains  are  so  steep  that  one  would  grow 
very  tired  climbing  directly  up  their  slopes  ;  so  a  much 
longer,  zigzag  path  is  usually  followed.  Then,  too,  there 
are  often  steep  cliff's,  or  precipices,  that  could  not  be  climbed 
(Fig.  18),  and  one  must  travel  round  these  to  find  a  place 
where  the  slope  is  gentle.  This  makes  the  path  still 

longer,  so  that  to 
climb  a  moun- 
tain one  mile 
high  it  might 
be  necessary  to 
walk  ten  miles, 
or  even  more. 

If  the  air  is 
colder  at  the 
crest  of  a  hill 
than  at  its  base, 
one  might  expect 
that  it  would  be 
very  much  colder 
on  the  top  of  a 
high  mountain, 
and  this  is  true 
(Fig.  12,  p.  14). 


A  mountain  precipice  in  the  Yosemite  Park  among 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  of  California.  No 
one  could  possibly  climb  the  face  of  this  steep 
rock  cliff. 


FIG.  18. 

In  fact,  it  grows 
so  much  colder 
near  the  summit 

of  the  higher  mountains  that  it  never  rains  there,  but  snows 

instead;    and  it  may  even  be  so   cold  that  trees  cannot 

grow  there  (Fig.  20,  p.  23). 

It  is  a  long  distance  to  the  top  of  a  high  mountain, 

and  the  air  is  cold  there. 


MOUNTAINS 


21 


Many  people  cross  the  ocean  to  visit  the  Alps  Mountains  in  Switzer- 
land ;  but  while  they  enjoy  climbing  about  on  the  sides,  and  looking 
at  the  beautiful  views,  very  few  ever  reach  the  summit  of  the  higher 
peaks.  Mont  Blanc  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  these,  and  is  nearly 
three  miles  in  height.  (The  picture,  Fig.  20,  shows  views  of  Mont 
Blanc.) 

It  is  very  difficult,  and  even  somewhat  dangerous,  to  climb  to  the 
summit  of  this  mountain.  When  a  person  wishes  to  do  so,  he  must 
employ  guides  to  help  him  over  the  difficult  places. 

The  round  trip  usually  takes  two  nights  and  three  days;  as  there 
is  no  place  to  obtain  food  high  up  on  the  mountain  side,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  carry  it.  Overcoats  and  blankets  are  also  necessary ;  for  even 
though  the  journey  be  made  in  the  hottest  summer  weather,  it  will  be 
bitterly  cold  upon  the  mountain  top. 

Suppose  that  we  are  making  such  a  journey.  We  start  early  in 
the  morning  so  as  to  have  a  long  day.  Each  of  us  carries  a  few 
light  articles,  but 


the  guides  and  por- 
ter carry  most,  for 
they  are  strong  and 
used  to  climbing. 

At  first  we  walk 
along  a  pleasant 
path  in  a  beautiful 
wood.  A  house  is 
occasionally  passed 
(Fig.  20,  G),  and 
perhaps  a  green  field. 
But  soon  there  are 
no  more  houses  and 
fields,  and  the  trees 
become  smaller  and 
smaller,  until  the 
line  is  reached  above  which  it  is  so  cold  that  no  trees  can  grow. 
This  is  called  the  tree  line  or  timber  line  (Fig.  19). 

From  this  point  on,  no  plants  larger  than  bushes  are  seen,  and  after 
a  while  even  these  disappear.  Meanwhile  the  soil  and  the  grass  have 
become  more  scarce,  while  here  and  there  banks  of  snow  are  found  in 


FIG.  1'J. 

A  picture  of  the  timber  line  on  the  snowy  slopes  of 
a  mountain  in  Colorado. 


22  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

the  shady  hollows.  Soon  we  have  climbed  to  the  snow  line.  This  is 
the  line  above  which  snow  is  found  all  the  year  round.  Now,  no 
matter  in  what  direction  we  look,  rock  and  snow  are  everywhere  to 
be  seen,  the  latter  often  being  hundreds  of  feet  deep  (Fig.  20,  F). 

What  a  beautiful  view  before  us !  It  repays  us  for  all  the  hard 
work.  We  look  down  upon  the  woods  through  which  we  have  just 
passed;  then,  over  beyond  them,  to  the  deep  valleys,  with  the  green 
fields,  pretty  houses  and  villages  far  below  us;  and,  beyond  these, 
to  the  other  steep  mountains  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley. 

The  guide  takes  his  place  in  front  of  us,  and  often  tells  us  to 
stop  while  he  goes  ahead  to  examine  the  way.  It  may  be  that  the 
snow  has  bridged  over  and  hidden  a  deep  and  narrow  chasm,  so  that 
if  one  were  to  step  upon  this  snow  he  might  fall  through. 

Sometimes  the  guides  lift  one  of  us  over  a  dangerous  place ;  and,  when 
it  is  steep  or  slippery,  fasten  all  the  members  of  the  party  together 
with  ropes  (Fig.  20,  E),  so  that  if  one  falls,  the  others  may  hold  him. 

As  we  advance  higher  and  higher,  it  is  often  necessary  to  take  a 
narrow  path  on  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain.  On  the  right  you 
can  look  hundreds  of  feet  almost  directly  downward ;  on  the  left  are 
great  stones  and  masses  of  snow  almost  directly  overhead. 

The  snow  sometimes  falls,  forming  snow  slides  or  avalanches, 
which  are  very  dangerous.  They  come  tearing  down  the  sides  of 
the  mountains  with  a  terrible  roar,  burying  whole  villages  beneath 
them.  You  have  seen  the  same  thing,  on  a  much  smaller  scale,  when 
snow  has  slid  from  the  roofs  of  houses  on  warm  winter  days. 

After  one  night  spent  in  a  little  house  about  half  way  up  the 
mountain  side,  and  after  much  hard  work  on  the  next  day,  we 
reach  the  summit  (Fig.  20,  A).  Here,  in  spite  of  our  wraps,  we  are 
all  shivering;  for  upon  high  mountain  summits  there  are  fierce  winds 
which  seem  to  go  through  even  the  thickest  cloth. 

On  this  barren  mountain  top  there  are  no  birds,  no  trees,  no  grass : 
nothing  but  snow  and  rock;  but  if  it  is  a  clear  day,  and  there  are 
no  clouds  clinging  to  the  mountain  sides  below,  we  may  be  able  to 
look  down  into  the  beautiful  green  valleys,  only  a  few  miles  away. 
There  the  birds  are  singing,  flowers  are  blossoming,  and  men,  working 
in  the  fields,  are  complaining  of  the  heat. 

It  is  a  difficult  and  dangerous  journey  to  the  top  of 
a  high  mountain. 


FIG.  20. 

Seven  photographs  taken  on  a  journey  to  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.    See  if 

you  can  find  in  these  pictures  any  of  the  scenes  described. 

23 


24 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


It  is  by  no  means  so  difficult  to   reach   the  summits 
of  all  mountains.     Many  of  them  (Fig.   14,  p.   17)  are 

so  low  that  there 
is  no  snow  upon 
them  in  summer, 
and  trees  live  and 
thrive  even  at  the 
top.  Roads  may 
have  been  made 
to  the  summit, 
so  that  one  may 
drive  up  instead 
of  walking. 

Among  some  of 
these  mountains 
hotels  are  built 
(Figs.  21  and  24), 
to  which  people  go  in  summer  to  escape  the  hot  weather. 
There  they  may  walk  through  the  woods,  and  climb  to 
many  inter- 
esting places, 
where  fine 
views  are  to 
be  had. 
Mountains 
are  impor- 
tant sum- 
mer resorts. 


FIG.  21. 

A  hotel  at  the  base  of  a  lofty  mountain  at  Banf, 
on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  in  British  Co- 
lumbia, Canada. 


Perhaps 


FIG.  22. 


you    already     Here  men  are  digging  gold  ore  deep  in  the  mountain  side. 


know      that 
the  rocks  in- 


The  ore  is  hoisted  to  the  surface  and  crushed  to  bits 
in  these  buildings,  so  that  the  particles  of  gold  can  be 
separated  from  the  rock. 


MOUNTAINS 


25 


FIG.  23. 

This  man  is  deep  down  in  the  earth  in  an  iron  mine.  He  is  preparing  to  load 
the  car  with  ore  which  other  miners  have  been  digging  in  a  tunnel  just 
above,  on  the  right-hand  side. 

side  the  mountains  sometimes  contain  gold  and  silver  (Fig. 
22).  Iron,  lead,  and  other  metals  are  also  found  there. 
When  they  are  dug  out  from  the  rocks  they  are  ores,  which 
do  not  look  much  like  these  metals  as  we  know  them.  But 
the  metal  in  the  rings,  watches,  and  silver  dollars  that  you 
have  seen,  and  even  the  iron  parts  of  your  school  desk,  may 
have  come  from  the  rocks  of  some  mountain  (Fig.  23). 

The  trees  in  the  mountain  forests  are  also  valuable.  The  most 
common  kinds  are  evergreens,  such  as  the  pine,  hemlock,  and  spruce, 
which  are  green  even  through  the  winter,  and  which  can  live  on  the 
cold  mountain  sides  as  far  up  as  the  timber  line. 


26  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

The  land  upon  a  mountain  side  is  usually  too  steep  and  rocky  for 
farms.  But  even  where  farms  are  not  possible,  trees  often  grow 
finely,  covering  the  mountain  for  miles  and  miles  with  dense  forests. 
This  is  fortunate,  for  the  trees  may  be  cut  down  and  sawed  into 
lumber,  from  which  all  sorts  of  wooden  articles  are  made.  Possibly 
the  very  seat  in  which  you  are  sitting  was  once  a  part  of  a  tree  that 
grew  on  the  side  of  a  mountain. 

Mountains  are  of  further  use  because  of  the  abundance  of  water 
that  they  supply.  We  have  already  seen  that  there  is  much  ice  and 


FIG.  24. 

The  forest  on  the  sides  of  the  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire.    The  large 
buildings  are  the  hotels  of  a  summer  resort. 

snow  upon  some  of  them  ;  in  fact,  there  is  so  much  upon  the  higher 
ones  that  it  can  never  all  melt  away,  no  matter  how  hot  the  summer 
may  be. 

During  hot  weather  many  streams  dry  up ;  but  at  such  times  the 
ice  and  snow  of  the  mountains  only  melt  the  faster,  so  that  the  streams 
which  flow  forth  from  these  mountains  are  even  more  swollen  than 
usual.  This  water  may  run  along  for  many  miles  until  it  finally 
reaches  towns  and  cities  where  people  need  it  to  drink.  Do  you  know 
of  any  city  that  gets  its  drinking  water  from  such  a  river  ? 

Mountains  furnish  metals,  lumber,  and  water. 


MOUNTAINS  27 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  can  you  say  about  the  height 
of  mountains?  (2)  How  have  they  been  made?  (3)  What  is  a 
mountain  chain  or  range?  (4)  How  long  might  it  take  to  climb  a 
mountain  a  mile  high?  (5)  Wliy  so  long?  (6)  What  can  you  tell 
about  the  cold  at  the  summit?  (7)  How  do  the  trees  change  in 
appearance  as  one  mounts  higher  and  higher? 

(8)  What  would  you  need  for  a  journey  up  Mont  Blanc? 
(9)  Describe  the  first  part  of  the  journey.  (10)  What  is  the  timber 
line?  (11)  What  is  the  snow  line?  (12)  What  are  avalanches? 

(13)  Describe  the  view  from  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

(14)  Mention  some  reasons  why  mountains  are  favorite  summer 
resorts.  (15)  What  kinds  of  mines  are  found  in  mountains  ?  (16)  Why 
is  it  fortunate  that  trees  grow  so  well  on  mountain  sides  ?  (17)  What 
is  done  with  them  ?  (18)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  streams  that 
flow  from  mountains. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Watch  for  clouds  that  resemble  mountains. 
Make  a  drawing  of  them.  (2)  Find  pictures  of  mountains;  note  the 
timber  line,  the  snow  line,  and  other  points  of  interest.  (3)  Repre- 
sent a  mountain  in  sand.  Show  the  tree  line  ;  the  snow  line  ;  steep  and 
gentle  slopes.  (4)  Represent  a  mountain  range  in  sand.  (5)  In 
what  direction  are  the  nearest  mountains?  What  are  they  called? 
How  far  away  are  they  ?  Find  out  an  interesting  fact  about  them. 

(6)  Ask  some  one  who  has  climbed  a  mountain  to  tell  you  about 
it.  (7)  Would  you  care  to  climb  one  yourself  ?  Why?  (8)  Write  a 
story  relating  the  adventures  you  would  expect  in  mountain  climbing. 
Describe  some  of  the  views  you  would  expect  to  find.  (9)  Why  do 
few  people  live  high  up  on  the  mountain  sides? 

(10)  Examine  a  piece  of  ore  (in  some  museum)  and  find  out  how 
the  metal  is  taken  from  the  rock.  (11)  Start  a  collection  for  the 
school  by  bringing  some  ores.  (12)  Hunt  for  pictures  of  woods  on 
mountain  sides.  You  will  find  several  in  this  book.  (13)  Find  some 
pictures  which  show  gorges  cut  in  the  mountains  by  running  water. 

(14)  Find  out  some  facts  about  glaciers. 
FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  108, 


IV.    VALLEYS 

WE  have  seen  how  water  is  always  washing  away  soil, 
making  hills  and  changing  their  appearance.  Wherever 

hills  are  found 
there  are  al- 
ways low  places 
or  hollows,  and 
these  are  called 
valleys. 

Some  very 
small  valleys 
you  have  al- 
ready seen  in 
Figure  9.  They 
are  only  a  few 
FIG'25'  inches  wide, 

A  beautiful  stream  in  a  wooded  valley.  ]      fl          f' 

hills  or  ridges  between  them  are  only  a  few  inches  high. 

Every  stream  of  water,  whether  great  or  small,  when 
flowing  over  soft  earth,  is  carrying  some  of  it  away  and 
forming  valleys.  Even  when  flowing  over  hard  rock,  the 
water  is  doing  the  same  thing,  but  more  slowly.  It  grinds 
the  rock  away  by  dragging  pebbles  and  grains  of  sand  over 
it,  thus  scouring  it  out.  This  work  of  the  water  is  never 
finished,  for  every  rain  is  slightly  changing  the  valleys. 

Are  there  any  valleys  in  your  neighborhood?  Do  you 
live  in  one  ?  If  you  have  travelled  on  the  railway,  you 
have  certainly  seen  many  of  them.  Figs.  11,  14,  and  25 

28 


VALLEYS 


29 


show  valleys.  Can  you  find  others  in  the  book  ?  In  Fig- 
ure 25  is  shown  a  small  stream  with  the  land  on  either 
side  gently  sloping  toward  it. 

Since  there  are  very  few  places  without  slopes  and 
hills  of  some  kind,  there  must  be  few  places  without 
valleys.  Although  some  of  these  are  narrow,  others  are 
so  wide  that  one  cannot  see  across  them. 

Wherever  two  downward  slopes  come  together,  a  valley  is  formed, 
whether  the  slopes  be  long  or  short.  In  those  that  you  can  find, 
notice  the  difference  in  the  slopes.  If  in  one  of  the  valleys  there  is 
a  stream,  notice  the  direction  in  which  it  flows.  Why  does  the  water 
flow  at  all  ?  Which  way  is  down  the  valley  ?  Point  up  the  valley. 

You  see,  of  course,  that  valleys  have  not  only  width,  but  length. 
Many  of  them  are  only  a  few  inches  long,  and  you  can  certainly  find 
some  of  these.     Perhaps  your 
home   is   in  a  valley  that  is 
many  miles  in  length.     Find 
out  if  this  is  true. 

Most  valleys  have  been 
cut  out  of  the  land  by 
running  water. 


Jf>& 


FIG.  L'(i. 

The  dotted  lines  show  the  divides  be- 
tween the  valleys.  Trace  them.  What 
else  do  you  see  in  the  picture  ? 


In  the  picture  (Fig. 
26)  you  see  several  val- 
leys. Rain  falls  into  each 
of  these,  some  of  it  sink- 
ing into  the  soil  and  some 
running  off  down  the 
slopes.  Into  which  valley  will  the  water  flow  that  falls 
on  the  top  of  the  ridge  ? 

When  it  rains  upon  the  roof  of  a  house  (Fig.  27),  the 
water  is  divided  along  the  highest  part,  some  flowing 
down  one  side,  some  down  the  other.  The  same  thing 
happens  when  water  falls  on  the  land.  Because  the  water 


30 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


parts,  or  divides,  at  the  highest  place  between  two  valleys, 
this  place  is  called  a  divide  or  water-parting,  or  sometimes  a 

watershed.  The 
dotted  lines  in 
the  picture 
(Fig.  26)  show 
some  divides. 
How  irregular 
the  lines  are  ! 

A  divide  some- 
times stands  out 
sharply,  as  on 
the  roof  of  a 
house  ;  but  in 
many  places  it 
is  difficult  to 
find,  for  the 


A  house  roof,  to  show  that  the  water  is  divided  along 
the  highest  part. 


FIG.  27. 

land  there  may 
appear    to     be 

flat.     Can  you  point  out  such  a  place  in  Figure  26  ? 

If  you  wish  to  know  how  wide  one  of  these  valleys  is,  where 

would  you   begin   to  meas- 
ure ?     Would  it  not  be  from 

the  divide  on  one  side  to  the 

divide  directly  across  on  the 

other    side?      Of    course    it 

would,  for  the  divides  form 

the  boundaries  of  the  valley 

(Fig.  28). 


A  divide  or  ivater- 
shed  is  the  highest 
ground  separating  two 
valleys. 


FIG.  28. 

The  line  A-B  shows  the  width  of  this  val- 
ley. Observe  that  the  valley  is  much 
wider  than  the  stream. 


0  n  *  ft  v  s. 

«r  vM      J 


VALLEYS 


While  the  valleys  that  one  usually  sees  are  both  narrow 
and  short,  there  are  some  so  long  and  wide  that  one  could 
not  travel  their  whole  length  or  width,  even  if  he  were  to 
spend  all  day  and  all  night  upon  a  fast  train  (Fig.  29). 
In  our  own  country  there  is  such  a  one,  called  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  which  is  over  three  thousand  miles  long  and 
many  hundred  miles  wide. 


FIG.  29. 
Picture  of  a  river  winding  through  a  broad  and  very  long  valley. 

When  valleys  are  so  large  as  this,  their  slopes  must  be 
very  gentle.  On  that  account  many  people  who  live  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  scarcely  know  that  they  are  in  a 
valley.  The  river  flows  through  the  lowest  part,  and  the 
homes  of  these  people  may  be  so  far  away  that  they  have 
never  seen  it.  All  about  them  the  land  appears  so  level 
that  it  does  not  seem  to  form  a  part  of  a  slope.  It  is 


32 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


therefore  called  a  plain.  But  when  rain  falls  there,  it 
immediately  flows  toward  the  river,  thus  proving  that 
the  plain  is  a  part  of  the  great  Mississippi  Valley  slopes. 

Such  an  immense  valley  was  not  cut  out  by  running 
water.  You  have  learned  that  hills  are  made  in  that  way, 
but  that  mountains  are  formed  by  the  rising  of  great  masses 
of  rock.  Some  of  the  great  valleys,  like  the  Mississippi, 
have  also  been  made  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the  land. 
But  even  the  valleys  that  have  been  formed  in  this  way 
have  generally  been  greatly  changed  by  the  water  that 
has  run  through  them. 

Some  great  valleys  have  been  formed  by  the  rising  or 
sinking  of  the  land. 


FIG.  30. 

A  valley  sliced  through  to  illustrate  how  valleys  may  be  formed  by  the  fold- 
ing of  the  rock  layers. 

People  generally  choose  the  valleys  for  their  homes. 
Even  among  high  mountains,  where  it  is  impossible  to  live 
on  the  steep  and  cold  sides,  they  often  dwell  in  the  bottom 
of  the  valleys.  Here  they  are  surrounded  by  lofty  peaks 
which  appear  to  shut  them  in  almost  entirely  (Fig.  31). 

Hills  are  often  too  cool,  or  else  have  too  shallow  a  soil 
for  farming.  The  rains  have  washed  the  dirt  down  the 
steep  slopes  into  the  lower  part  of  the  valleys,  making  a 
deep  and  fertile  soil  there.  In  the  valleys,  therefore,  the 


VALLEYS 


33 


FIG.  31. 
A  city  near  some  mines  in  a  valley  among  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

best  farms  are  found,  with  their  great  fields  of  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  and  grass.  Here,  also,  cattle  and  horses  are  raised, 
(Fig.  32),  many  large  cities  have  sprung  up,  and  railways 
have  been  built. 


FIG.  32. 

A  herd  of  cattle  grazing  on  the  clover  that  is  growing  in  the  deep,  rich  soil 
in  a  valley  bottom. 

D 


34  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Most  of  the  land  is  really  made  up  of  slopes,  and  we 
are  living  upon  them.  It  may  not  seem  that  your  home 
is  upon  one,  but  it  probably  is.  Your  house  may  even  be 
upon  a  hill-top,  and  yet  you  may  be  living  in  a  broad 
valley. 

Most  people  live  in  some  part  of  a  valley. 


FIG.  33. 
A  ditch  dug  to  drain  a  swamp. 

The  soil  is  all  the  more  valuable  because  of  the  slopes 
of  valleys.  Were  it  not  for  them  the  water,  after  a  heavy 
rain,  would  stand  in  a  thin  sheet  upon  the  ground.  But 
where  there  are  slopes  down  which  the  water  can  freely 
run,  it  quickly  flows  off  and  does  not  drown  the  crops  or 
make  the  region  unhealthful  for  man  and  animals. 


VALLEYS  35 

The  great  importance  of  this  matter  is  shown  when  farmers  buy 
land.  One  of  the  first  things  that  they  inquire  about  is  drainage, 
that  is  the  slopes,  which  allow  the  water  to  run  off  quickly. 

If  the  water  does  not  freely  flow  away,  they  even  dig  ditches  in 
order  to  carry  it  off  (Fig.  33).  Sometimes  these  ditches  are  left  open, 
as  in  the  picture;  but,  more  often,  tiles  are  placed  in  the  bottom, 
forming  a  kind  of  pipe,  and  then  the  earth  is  thrown  back  again. 
The  water  finds  its  way  into  the  pipes,  through  small  openings  that 
are  left  for  this  purpose,  and  flows  away.  Good  drainage  is  so  im- 
portant that  men  are  often  willing  to  incur  great  expense  in  order  to 
secure  it. 

In  some  places  the  land  is  so  nearly  level  that  the 
standing  water  produces  swamps.  There  are  thousands 
of  swamps  in  this  country,  and  great  sums  of  money  are 
spent  in  digging  ditches  to  drain  them.  This  makes  the 
swamp  dry ;  and  since  the  soil  in  such  places  is  very  fer- 
tile, a  great  deal  of  land  that  was  once  of  little  value  is 
now  changed  to  rich  farms. 

The  slopes  of  valleys  are  valuable  for  drainage. 

Valleys  have  had  a  great  influence  upon  the  roads  of  a 
country.  For  instance,  in  going  across  mountains  men 
generally  follow  a  valley,  going  higher  and  higher  until 
they  come  to  what  is  called  a  mountain  pass  (Fig.  34), 
which  is  nothing  more  than  a  valley  between  mountain 
peaks.  After  crossing  this,  they  go  down  another  valley 
on  the  other  side  of  the  mountain. 

Railroada»also  cross  mountains  through  the  valleys  and 
over  the  lower  passes ;  they  wind  in  and  out,  often  mak- 
ing sharp  curves  in  order  to  avoid  cutting  directly  through 
the  rock. 

Even  in  hilly  regions  it  is  usually  easier  to  get  from 
one  place  to  another  by  travelling  in  the  valleys.  In  the 


36 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


lower  parts,  near  the  streams,  the  land  is  most  nearly  level ; 
but  as  soon  as  one  attempts  to  go  directly  across  the  coun- 
try, the  roads  become  rough  and  hilly. 

On  that  account,  when  white  men  first  came  to  this 
country,  and  settled  among  the  hills  and  mountains,  they 
built  their  roads  in  the  valleys,  often  quite  near  the 
streams.  Men  do  the  same  thing  still. 


FIG.  34. 
A  mountain  pass  among  the  lofty  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado.     Point  to  it. 

Where  the  country  is  more  level,  as  upon  a  plain,  it  is 
not  so  difficult  to  travel  directly  forward  ;  but  even  in 
such  places  both  the  wagon  roads  and  the  railways  are 
often  built  round  a  small  hill  rather  than  over  it. 

The  location  of  wagon  roads  and  railways  depends 
on  the  valleys* 

We  have  seen  that  hills  and  mountains  afford  many  beautiful  views. 
But  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  the  mountains  to  see  fine  views. 
You  may  see  them  in  almost  any  valley  or  plain.  Even  a  field  of 


VALLEYS 


37 


green  grass,  such  as 
may  be  seen  in  city 
parks,  and  in  the 
country,  is  beautiful. 
This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  early 
spring,  after  the  long, 
cold  winter. 

Those  who  live  in 
small  towns  or  cities 
may  find  streets 
where  the  trees  have 
grown  so  tall  that 
they  droop  and  meet 
overhead  (Fig.  35). 
As  one,  looks  down 
such  a  street,  he  can 


FIG.  35. 

A  beautiful  New  England  roadway  in  Northfield, 
Massachusetts. 


scarcely  help  exclaiming,  "  What  a  magnificent  archway ! " 

In  the  country,  also,  there  are  many  beautiful  sights,  such  as  the 
variously  colored  fields,  the  waving  grain,  the  graceful  trees,  and  the 
shady  roads. 

H^v'.:  '  f'W •'/  •/>'        Tne  views 

|v  :'•'''  i  change     from 

V^     '  |B  jj j^  time   to  time. 

,   V;  ,  M"      if  gf!      They  are   not 

^t-'4N.^  V'    .— ^       ..__  1       j/f     -XT"  the    same    at 

noon  as  in  the 
late  afternoon 
when  the  sun 
is  casting  long 
shadows.  In 
the  spring  the 
plants  are  fresh 
and  bright ; 


F 


I 


FIG.  30. 

A  scene  in  Boston  Common  after  a  heavy  fall  of  damp 
snow, 


in  the  autumn 
they  are  pret- 
tily colored  ; 
in  the  winter 


38  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

the  damp  snow  clings  to  the  trees,  bushes,  fences,  arid  houses  until 
everything  is  robed  in  white  (Fig.  36).  Again,  the  rain  freezes  to 
the  trees,  and  when  the  sun  appears,  everything  sparkles  in  the  bright 
light  as  if  it  were  covered  with  a  thousand  jewels. 

It  is  not  necessary,  then,  to  travel  far  in  order  to  find  beautiful 
views ;  they  are  to  be  found  everywhere,  not  only  among  the  moun- 
tains, but  on  the  hills,  in  the  valleys,  in  the  country  and  in  the  city. 

The  hills,  mountains,  and  valleys  are  very  beautiful. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  makes  the  little  valleys  ?  (2)  Tell 
why  they  must  change  from  year  to  year.  (3)  Describe  some  of  those 
that  you  have  crossed  on  the  railway.  (4)  How  many  slopes  are 
necessary  to  make  a  valley?  (5)  What  is  a  divide?  (6)  Tell  how 
large  some  of  the  largest  valleys  may  be.  (7)  How  have  these  very 
large  valleys  been  formed  ?  (8)  What  is  a  plain  ? 

(9)  In  what  parts  of  mountains  do  most  people  live?  Why? 
(10)  What  is  meant  by  drainage?  (11)  How  do  farmers  sometimes 
provide  drainage?  (12)  What  is  a  swamp?  (13)  Why  do  roads 
and  railways  among  the  mountains  follow  the  valleys?  (14)  What 
is  a  mountain  pass  ?  (15)  Where  is  the  most  level  land  usually 
found?  (16)  What  fields  or  yards  near  you  are  beautiful  ?  (17)  Are 
there  any  walks  or  drives  that  you  greatly  enjoy?  (18)  How  do  the 
views  change  from  time  to  time? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Find  a  tiny  valley  and  watch  to  see  if  it  is 
changed  in  any  way  by  a  heavy  rain.  (2)  Find  a  still  larger  valley 
in  your  neighborhood.  (3)  Find  the  divide  on  each  side  of  it. 
(4)  Show  that  streets  and  roads  are  so  made  that  they  have  a  water- 
shed. (5)  Make  some  valleys  in  clay  or  sand  and  show  the  divides. 
(6)  Where  is  the  largest  valley  in  your  neighborhood  ?  (7)  Is  your 
home  in  one  of  the  very  large  valleys,  or  in  a  small  one  ?  (8)  Show 
by  a  drawing  like  Figure  30  how  the  largest  valleys  have  been  made. 
(9)  Can  you  show  it  in  any  other  way  ?  (10)  Why  should  swamp 
land  that  has  been  drained  raise  uncommonly  good  crops?  (11)  Do 
you  know  of  any  roads  or  railways  that  follow  valleys  and  wind  about 
the  hills?  Tell  about  them.  (12)  Find  some  beautiful  views  in 
your  neighborhood.  (13)  Make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  valleys. 
(14)  Write  a  story  telling  how  valleys  have  been  formed. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  109. 


V.    RIVERS 


EVERY  heavy  rain  causes  the  water  to  collect,  here  and 
there,  and  flow  down  the  slopes.  At  first  only  tiny  rills 
are  formed ;  but  these  unite  to  form  the  little  streams 
and  brooks. 

In  some  places  a  brook  is  narrow  and  deep,  in  others 
broad  and  shallow  ;  here  it  flows  swiftly,  and  there  slowly. 
Place  a  chip  or  a  boat 
in  such  a  brook,  and  it 
floats  quietly  in  some 
places,  and  then,  com- 
ing to  a  rapid,  it  is 
whirled  along  swiftly 
and  perhaps  upset 
(Fig.  37).  Or  it  may 
float  to  a  waterfall, 
where  the  water  tum- 
bles down  from  the 
top  of  a  ledge,  and 
then  it  is  surely  over- 
turned (Fig.  38). 

There  are  large  riv- 
ers in  the  world  much 
like  these  little  brooks,  the  main  difference  being  in  their 
size.  But  even  such  rivers  are  generally  small  at  their 
beginning  or  source.  Some  of  the  largest  have  their  sources 
far  up  in  the  mountains,  where  they  are  so  small  that  a 
person  can  easily  step  across  them. 

39 


FIG.  37. 

A  noisy  brook  in  the  Adirondacks  of  New 
York,  tumbling  over  its  rocky  bed. 


40 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


The  water  of  these  rivers 
may  come  from  the  melting 
snows;  and,  as  it  dashes  along, 
beating  itself  into  foam  by 
striking  against  the  rocks,  it 
is  joined  by  other  streams  like 
itself.  Often  the  water  must 
rush  round  or  leap  over  large 
boulders  which  lie  in  its  path; 
and  often  it  falls  directly 
downward  for  many  feet  with 
a  great  roar  (Fig.  75). 

Great  rivers  at  their  source 
are  usually  no  larger  than 
a  brook. 

The  water  of  a  mountain 
stream  seems  to  be  quite  help- 
less, with  the  great,  hard 
rocks  all  about  it  ;  but  it 
never  gives  up  its  struggle 
with  them.  Rocky  Cliffs  may 
reach  far  up  into  the  sky  on 
either  side,  and  the  slopes  may 
be  so  steep  that  loose  pieces 
of  stone  often  fall  into  the 
water.  But  the  torrent  dashes 
these  against  one  another,  and 
grinds  them  against  its  rocky 
bed,  until  they  are  worn  into 
pebbles.  These  pebbles  are  borne  down  stream  and  are 
slowly  ground  up  into  grains  of  sand  and  bits  of  clay. 


Copyrighted,  1889,  by  S.  R.  Stoddard. 

FIG.  38. 

A  mountain  torrent  leaping  over 
the  ledges  in  rapids  and  water- 
falls. Point  to  one  of  the 
falls.  Find  others  in  the  other 
pictures  of  the  hook. 


41 


If  we  should  travel  down  such  a  stream,  starting  near 
its  source  among  the  wild  mountains,  we  should  find  it 
constantly  changing.  In  the  first  place,  it  gradually  grows 
larger,  because  other  streams,  called  branches  or  tributaries, 
enter  it  (Fig.  39).  The  banks  become  lower  and  the 
river  grows  broader  and  deeper.  In  places  there  may  still 
be  rapids  and  falls,  but  the  country  on  either  side  is  not 


FIG.  39. 

Two  streams,  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela,  uniting  at  the  great  city  of 
Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania. 

so  steep  and  rocky  as  it  was  among  the  mountains.  Now, 
houses,  farms,  and  men  are  seen,  and  horses  and  cattle  are 
grazing  in  the  fields  near  the  banks  (Fig.  40). 

At  first,  the  slope  of  the  stream  bed  was  so  great  that 
the  river  hurried  along  faster  than  you  could  run.  Now 
the  water  no  longer  flows  rapid]  y  enough  to  drag  boulders 
or  even  pebbles;  but  it  can  st;il  carry  the  sand  and  mud 
brought  by  the  rain  from  the  soil  of  the  hillsides. 

It  has  now  been  many  days  since  this  water  left  the 


42 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  40. 

The  Connecticut  River  in  Massachusetts,  flowing  through  a  splendid  farming 

country. 

mountains.  The  river  has  become  so  wide  that  a  long 
bridge  is  needed  to  cross  it  (Fig.  41),  and  so  deep  that 
one  cannot  touch  its  bed  even  with  a  long  pole. 

At  last,  per- 
haps weeks  after 
it  started,  the 
water  approaches 


the 


ocean 


and 


FIG.  41. 

The  long  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  River  at  St. 
Louis.  Notice  how  small  the  horses  appear  near 
the  river.  This  will  show  how  very  large  the 
bridge  is. 


now  the  down- 
ward slope  of  the 
river  bed  is  so 
gentle  that  the 
current  cannot 
drag  even  grains 
of  sand;  but  it 
still  carries  fine 
bits  of  rock-mud 


RIVERS 


43 


with  it.  These  bits  may  be  so  tiny  that  if  you  were  to 
place  some  of  the  muddy  water  in  a  glass,  it  would  take 
hours  for  all  of  them  to  settle  and  leave  the  water  clear. 
When  the  river  enters  the  quiet  waters  of  the  ocean,  even 
this  mud,  or  sediment,  settles. 

We  have  followed  the  river  from  the  source  to  the 
mouth  where  it  empties  its  waters  into  the  great  ocean. 
At  first  it  was  a  little  stream,,  but  by  the  addition  of  water 
from  many  tributaries,  it  has  grown  larger  and  larger, 
until  at  its  mouth  it  may  be  more  than  a  mile  in  width. 

A  great  river  is  broad  and  deep  at  its  mouth,  and 
its  current  is  very  slow;  but  it  carries  sediment  even 
to  the  ocean. 

We  have  been  describing  a  large  river  that  had  its  source  in  the 
mountains ;  but  others  are  much  smaller,  and  many  do  not  start  in 
the  mountains.  Some  empty  their  water  into  other  rivers,  being 
tributaries,  and  others  enter  lakes  rather  than  the  sea.  They  may 
also  have  low, 
soft  banks  in- 
stead of  high, 
rocky  ones,  and 
there  may  be  no 
rapids  and  falls. 
But  no  matter 
where  their 
sources  and 
mouths  may  be, 
or  what  other  dif- 
erences  may  ex- 
ist, they  are,  in  FIG.  42. 

many  ways,  much  A  pebbly  brook  bed  which  is  filled  with  water  when 
like  this  river. 


the  rain  falls  or  the  snow  melts,  but  is  often  dry  in 
summer. 


Where  does  so   much  water  come  from?     Taken  up 
from  the  ocean,  it  falls  from  the  sky  in  the  form  of  rain 


44  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

or  snow.  But  we  all  know  that  small  streams  dry  up 
and  disappear  soon  after  a  rain.  Even  large  brooks  may 
become  quite  dry  in  summer  (Fig.  42).  Why,  then,  do 
not  great  rivers  also  dry  up  ? 

One  reason  is  that  many  rivers  have  a  constant  supply 
at  their  source.  That  this  is  true  of  a  stream  starting  in 
a  high  mountain  is  clear,  because  we  have  seen  (p.  26) 
that  the  snow  in  such  places  never  entirely  melts  away. 
It  is  also  true  of  streams  that  have  their  sources  in  lakes 
and  swamps. 

Then,  again,  not  all  of  the  rain-water  flows  off,  but  some 
sinks  down  into  the  ground.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
water  in  the  ground,  and  it  is  this  which  men  find  when 
they  dig  wells.  This  underground  water  trickles  through 
the  soil,  and  through  crevices  in  the  rocks,  often  bubbling 
forth  as  a  spring,  weeks  after  it  has  fallen  as  rain  some- 
where else.  Most  large  rivers  are  supplied  with  water 
from  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  such  springs. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  a  great  river,  with  its  many  trib- 
utaries, flows  through  a  very  large  tract  of  country,  so  that  when  it  is 
not  raining  in  one  part,  the  rain  may  be  falling  in  another.  Thus, 
while  one  tributary  carries  little  water,  heavy  rain  may  keep  others 
full,  and  this  flows  into  the  main  stream,  preventing  it  from  drying 
up. 

If  a  heavy  rain  falls,  or  if  the  snow  melts  rapidly,  so 
much  water  may  flow  into  a  river  that  it  rises  and  over- 
flows its  banks  (Fig.  43).  Those  who  live  near  such 
streams  are  in  danger  of  being  drowned  by  the  floods,  and 
in  some  places  men  have  built  banks  of  earth,  called  levees, 
to  keep  the  water  from  overflowing  the  towns  and  farms. 

The  supply  of  river  water  comes  from  rain  or  melting 
snow,  from  lakes  and  swamps,  and  from  underground, 


RIVERS 


45 


Every  one  has  seen  muddy  water  flowing  in  gutters,  or  in  rills  on 
the  hillsides.  Great  quantities  of  soil  are  washed  away  in  this  man- 
ner, as  has  been  shown  (p.  11).  But  what  becomes  of  it  all? 

If  you  have  seen  a  sidewalk  or  a  field  flooded  with  water,  you  per- 
haps remember  that  when  the  flood  disappeared,  a  thin  layer  of  fine 
mud  was  left.  This  mud  was  carried  along  by  the  current  until  it 
reached  a  place  where  the  water  stood  almost  still,  then  it  slowly  set- 
tled. The  same  thing  will  happen  if  some  muddy  water  is  allowed  to 
stand  in  a  glass  for  a  time.  Try  it. 

In  much  the  same  way,  when  there  is  a  river  flood  (Fig.  43),  the 
water  spreads  out  on  either  side  of  the  river  in  a  great,  thin  sheet,  flow- 


FIG.  43. 

Photograph  of  a  river  flood  on  the  Ohio,  which  has  forced  the  people  to  move 
out  of  their  homes.    Tell  what  you  see  in  this  picture. 

ing  slowly  along  and  depositing  a  thin  layer  of  mud.  Each  flood  adds 
a  layer,  making  the  land  higher,  until,  after  many  years,  it  is  lifted  con- 
siderably above  the  usual  level  of  the  river.  Such  land  is  generally 
a  level  plain ;  and  since  it  is  made  by  river  floods,  it  is  called  a  flood- 
plain. 

Many  pieces  of  land  have  been  made  in  this  manner,  and  ydu  have 
perhaps  seen  some  of  them.  Near  the  banks  of  streams  the  valley  is 
often  flat,  and  the  hillsides  that  bound  the  bottom  of  the  valley  begin 
to  rise  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  water  (Fig.  44).  This  level 
land  is  usually  a  flood-plain.  Near  small  streams  such  plains  are  gener- 


46 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


ally  narrow ;  but  in  the  Mississippi  and  Nile  valleys  the  flood-plains  are 
many  miles  in  width.    Farmers  like  this  soil  because  it  is  very  fertile. 
Some  of  the  sediment  carried  by  rivers  forms  flood- 
plains. 


FIG.  44. 
A  small  flood-plain  between  steeply  sloping  valley  sides. 

Much  of  the  sediment  is  carried  on  until  it  reaches  a 
lake  or  the  ocean.  Here,  opposite  the  river  mouth,  the 
water  is  generally  quiet,  so  that  the  mud  sinks  to  the 

bottom.  At  first  only 
enough  sediment  is 
collected  to  form  low, 
swampy  land  ;  but 
this  is  gradually  lifted 
higher  and  higher,  by 
layers  of  mud  from 
each  flood,  until  it 
becomes  high  enough 
to  make  dry  land. 
These  plains  at  the 


Fig.  45. 

This  picture  shows  a  river  delta.     What  else 
do  you  see  in  the  picture  ? 


mouths  of  rivers  form 


RIVERS 


47 


what  are  called  deltas  (Fig.  45).  Many  streams  have 
such  wide  deltas  that  one  cannot  see  across  them,  most  of 
the  sediment  having  come  from  fields,  hills,  and  moun- 
tains, perhaps  hundreds  of  miles  away.  The  surface  of 
the  delta  is  a  plain,  because  it  cannot  be  built  any  higher 
than  the  floods  themselves  have  reached. 

From  year  to  year  more  sediment  is  brought  down,  and 
the  land  is  built  further  and  further  into  the  water,  so 
that  deltas  are  constantly 
growing.  The  slope  of  the 
river  bed  is  usually  so  gentle 
that  all  of  the  water  cannot 
flow  out  in  a  single  channel. 
For  this  reason  it  enters  the  sea 
through  several  arms,  cutting 
the  delta  into  several  parts. 

Some  of  the  sediment  car- 
ried by  rivers  builds  deltas 
at  their  mouths. 

A  river  entering  the  sea  may  re- 
ceive water  brought  by  hundreds  of 
tributaries.  Thus  the  rain  that  falls 
in  places  even  hundreds  of  miles 
apart  may  at  last  be  brought  together 
in  a  single  main  stream.  Such  a 
main  stream  with  all  of  its  tributa- 
ries is  called  a  river  system  (Fig.  46) . 
For  instance,  we  speak  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  system,  meaning  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  its  many  tributaries. 

All  the  country  which  is  drained  by  a  single  main  stream  is  called 
a  river  basin.  Thus  all  the  land  drained  by  the  Mississippi  River  is 
included  in  the  Mississippi  basin. 

One  should  not  think  of  this  as  a  true  basin.     A  real  basin,  as  a 


FIG.  46. 

Picture  of  a  river  system  and 
river  basin.  Point  to  some 
of  the  tributaries ;  to  their 
source ;  to  the  mouth ;  to  the 
delta. 


48  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

wash  basin,  has  a  rim  extending  all  around  it.  The  rim  of  a  river 
basin  is  the  divide ;  but  there  is  no  divide,  or  rim,  near  the  mouth  of 
a  river,  since  the  water  runs  out  into  the  sea.  If  it  were  a  true  basin, 
with  a  rim  all  around  it,  the  water  would  collect  and  form  a  lake. 

All  the  land  whose  waters  are  drained  by  a  single 
river  is  called  a  river  basin,  and  all  these  streams 
together  form  a  river  system. 

Some  ways  have  already  been  suggested  in  which  rivers 
are  of  much  use.  They  build  flood-plains  and  deltas,  thus 
making  some  of  the  most  fertile  land  in  the  world.  Rivers 
also  furnish  water  to  plants,  animals,  and  man. 

On  page  6  it  was  shown  that  plants  sometimes  wither  during  hot 
weather,  because  the  soil  is  dry.  But  near  rivers  the  soil  is  usually 
kept  so  moist  that  plants  grow  well  even  in  dry  weather. 

There  are  some  places  in  the  world  where  there  is  no£  enough  rain 
for  crops  to  grow.  The  people  in  such  regions  sometimes  lead  the 
water  out  of  the  rivers  into  ditches,  through  which  it  flows  for  long 
distances.  Then  it  is  spread  out  over  the  thirsty  soil,  so  that  plants 
can  thrive.  This  is  called  irrigation,  and  in  some  places  no  crops  can 
be  raised  without  it. 

Many  animals  and  people  depend  on  rivers  for  all  the  water  they 
use.  Even  whole  cities  obtain  their  drinking  water  solely  from  rivers. 

Streams  not  only  bring  water  where  it  is  needed,  but 
they  also  carry  it  away  when  it  is  not  wanted.  A  river 
is  really  a  great  ditch  for  draining  the  land,  so  that  when- 
ever the  snow  melts  rapidly,  or  a  heavy  rain  falls,  the 
rivers  quickly  remove  the  water.  They  also  carry  off  the 
filthy  water,  or  sewage,  of  many  towns  and  cities. 

Rivers  supply  water  where  needed,  and  remove  it 
when  not  wanted. 

The  water  of  rivers  is  also  used  for  turning  wheels  to 
help  make  many  articles,  such  as  cloth  and  flour. 

You  have  perhaps  noticed  how  windmills  work  (Fig. 


RIVERS  49 

08).  The  wind  blows  the  large  wheel  round  and  round, 
and  it  is  so  connected  with  other  wheels  that  it  can  pump 
water,  or  turn  a  saw  for  sawing  wood,  or  grind  corn. 
Likewise  steam  is  used  to  turn  the  wheels  of  a  railway 
engine,  so  that  it  drags  the  heavy  cars  along. 

River  water  is  made  to  do  work  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner.    Where  there  is  a  swift  current,  or  where  there  are 


FIG.  47. 

A  picture  of  an  old  mill  and  old-fashioned  wheel.    Much  smaller  wheels  are 
now  used,  and  they  are  usually  kept  out  of  sight. 

falls,  as  the  Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  135),  it  is  often  easy  to 
run  some  of  the  water  off  to  one  side  through  a  ditch  or 
pipe.  The  water,  racing  rapidly  along,  strikes  a  wheel 
(Fig.  47)  and  makes  it  whirl  round.  This  wheel,  being 
connected  with  others,  causes  them  to  turn  also,  much  as 
one  wheel  in  a  clock  causes  others  to  revolve. 

Thus  machinery  is  set  in  motion  by  which  logs  are 
sawed  into  lumber,  grain  is  ground  into  flour,  cotton  is 
made  into  cloth,  and  many  other  kinds  of  work  are  done. 


50  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

The  water  that  furnishes  the  power  to  turn  the  wheels 
is  called  the  water-power,  and  the  buildings  in  which  such 
manufacturing  is  carried  on  are  called  factories  or  mills." 

In  many  places  the  river  water  does  not  flow  fast  enough 
to  strike  a  wheel  with  much  force ;  water-power  is  found 
mainly  in  rivers  with  swift  currents,  and  especially  near 
rapids  and  falls.  Here  mills  have  been  built,  and  then 
great  cities  have  often  sprung  up  (Fig.  75,  p.  85). 

Rivers  also  supply  water-power  for  manufacturing. 

There  is  still  another  way  in  which  rivers  are  extremely 
valuable.  It  has  always  been  difficult  to  find  a  conven- 
ient means  for  carrying  goods  from  one  place  to  another. 
In  some  places  there  are  no  roads  ;  and  even  where  there 
are,  they  are  often  hilly,  rough,  and  muddy. 

Yet  most  of  the  articles  that  we  use  every  day,  like  sugar, 
flour,  oil,  meat,  coal,  lumber,  and  clothing,  have  been  car- 
ried long  distances,  sometimes  thousands  of  miles.  Even 
if  the  roads  were  excellent,  it  would  take  a  great  deal 
of  time,  and  cost  much  money,  to  bring  these  things  in 
wagons.  To  carry  them  by  railway  takes  less  time,  but  is 
expensive. 

A  broad,  deep  river  is  really  one  of  the  finest  roads  in 
the  world.  To  be  sure,  no  wagons  or  cars  can  be  drawn 
over  it,  but  boats  move  there  with  ease.  A  river  boat 
can  carry  as  much  as  scores  of  wagons  or  cars  (Fig.  48), 
arid  many  may  be  going  and  coming  at  the  same  time,  so 
that  a  large  river  is  equal  to  several  railroads  :  it  costs 
little,  too,  to  keep  it  in  repair. 

For  these  reasons  carrying  goods  by  boat  upon  rivers, 
or  river  navigation,  is  a  very  important  business.  Indeed, 
it  is  so  important  that  in  many  places  broad  ditches,  called 


RIVERS 


51 


canals,  have  been  cut  in  the  soil  and  rock  in  order  to  carry 
goods  by  boat. 

Before  the  railways  were  built,  —  which  is  no  longer 
ago  than  when  your  grandfathers  were  boys,  —  boats  were 
used  for  carrying  all  sorts  of  articles  from  place  to  place. 
Even  to-day,  when  there  are  so  many  good  wagon  roads 
and  railways,  it  is  cheaper  to  carry  crops  and  other  prod- 
ucts on  boats  than  in  cars,  and  this  is  often  done. 


FIG.  48. 

A  view  across  the  broad  Mississippi  at  New  Orleans.  The  other  bank  is  seen 
dimly  in  the  distance.  A  loaded  river  boat  is  just  coming  in,  and  others 
are  tied  up  to  the  levee. 

We  see,  then,  why  many  people  have  preferred  to  build 
their  homes  near  rivers.  A  farmer  prefers  to  live  near  a 
good  wagon  road,  or  near  the  railway  station,  so  that  he 
may  easily  send  his  crops  away ;  and,  for  the  same  reason, 
people  have  always  liked  to  live  near  a  river,  which  is  a 
good  road  or  waterway.  It  is  partly  on  this  account  that 
many  of  the  large  cities  of  the  world  stand  on  the  banks 
of  large  rivers.  Do  you  know  of  any  such  cities  ? 

Elvers  are  also  of  value  for  navigation. 


52  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Describe  a  stream  that  you  have  seen. 
(2)  What  are  rapids  and  falls  ?  (3)  Describe  a  small  stream  in 
the  mountains.  (4)  What  does  it  do  with  the  rocks  in  its  way? 
(5)  What  are  tributaries?  (6)  Does  the  current  grow  more  or  less 
swift  as  one  goes  further  down  stream  ?  (7)  How  does  the  country 
change  in  appearance  ?  (8)  What  becomes  of  the  pebbles  ?  Why  ? 

(9)  What  is   meant  by  the   source    of   a    river?     By  its   mouth? 

(10)  Where  do  rivers  obtain  their  water?     (11)  What  is  a  spring? 
(12)  What  effect  has  a  heavy  rain  upon  a  stream  ?     (13)  Why  do 
not  large  rivers  dry  up  in  summer?     (14)  Why  does  not  sediment 
sink  where  the  current  is  swift?     (15)  What  is  a  flood-plain ?     Why 
is  it  level?    (16)  Explain  how  a  delta  is  made.     (17)  What  is  a 
river  basin?     (18)  A  river  system?     (19)  Why  do  plants  grow  well 
on  the  banks  of  a  river  ?     (20)  What  is  irrigation  ?     (21)  How  are 
rivers  useful  for  drainage?      (22)  What  is  water-power?      (23)  In 
what  ways  is  a  river  a  fine  road?     (24)  Give  some  of  the  reasons 
why  many  cities  have  sprung  up  near  great  rivers. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  After  a  heavy  rain,  follow  a  small  stream 
from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  (2)  Throw  a  chip  into  the  water,  and 
follow  it  as  far  as  you  can.  (3)  Why  are  the  rocks  in  river  beds 
usually  so  smooth  and  round?  (4)  If  there  is  a  brook  or  river  near 
you,  examine  its  banks.  Is  it  a  tributary  of  another  stream? 
(5)  How  deep  and  how  wide  is  it  ?  (6)  Trace  a  brook  to  its  source, 
if  possible.  Find  several  tributaries.  (7)  What  large  river  is  nearest 
your  home?  What  are  its  largest  tributaries?  (8)  What  is  meant 
by  "up  a  river"?  By  "down  a  river"?  By  right  bank?  By  left 
bank?  By  river  channel?  By  river  bed?  (9)  Find  a  spring. 
Why  is  its  water  cool?  (10)  Watch  a  well  that  is  being  dug, 
to  see  if  underground  water  is  found.  (11)  Find  a  floo'd-plain 
along  the  side  of  a  stream.  (12)  Find  a  delta.  (13)  Do  you 
know  of  a  city  that  gets  its  water  from  a  river?  (14)  Make  a 
small  water-wheel,  and  arrange  for  a  stream  of  water  to  turn  it  round. 
(15)  Visit  a  mill  that  is  run  by  water-power.  (16)  Find  out  more 
about  canals.  (17)  Make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  rivers,  and 
notice  as  many  things  as  you  can  about  them.  (18)  Find  some 
poems  describing  brooks  and  rivers.  (19)  Write  a  story  of  a  journey 
from  the  source  to  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  109. 


VI.     PONDS   AND   LAKES 


FIG.  49. 

A  dam  of  dirt,  built  in  order  to  form 
a  pond  or  reservoir. 


RIVERS  supply  towns  and  cities  with  water,  and  also 
turn  the  wheels  of  factories  ;  but  some  streams  become 
so  low  in  summer  that  they  lack  water  for  these  pur- 
poses. To  prevent  this  diffi- 
culty men  often  build  dams 
of  wood,  earth,  or  stone  across 
the  rivers,  and  in  this  way 
collect  sufficient  water  to 
make  ponds  (Fig.  49).  When 
the  rivers  are  high,  these 
ponds  are  filled,  and  enough 
water  gathers  to  last  through 
the  dry  season. 

Probably  you  have  seen  such  a  pond  as  this.  Or  you 
yourself  may  have  made  small  ponds  by  building  dams 
of  mud  or  leaves  across  brooks  and  gutters  (Fig.  50). 

Lakes  may  be  made  in  a  similar  manner,  for  they  are  like  ponds, 
only  larger.  Sometimes  they  are  several  hundred  miles  in  length, 
and  perhaps  one  hundred  miles  in  width.  Some  of  the  largest  in  the 
world,  the  Great^Lakes  in  the  northern  United  States,  were  made  by 
dams  formed  ages  ago  across  parts  of  the  great  St.  Lawrence  River 
system. 

Most  ponds  and  lakes  have  been  made  in  much  the 
same  way.  That  is,  the  water  has  gathered  behind  dams 
across  streams. 

53 


54 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY- 


But  in  most  cases  these  dams  have  not  been  built  by  men.  Beavers 
have  made  a  few  of  them.  There  used  to  be  a  great  many  of  these 
little  animals  in  this  country,  and  some  are  still  left.  Since  they  pre- 
fer quiet,  shallow  ponds  in  which  to  live,  they  gnaw  down  trees  and 
build  dams  with  the  logs ;  then  they  build  their  homes  in  the  water 
thus  collected. 

In  other  places,  where  the  sides  of  a  valley  are  steep,  great  masses 
of  rock  and  earth  have  sometimes  fallen,  in  the  form  of  avalanches, 
and  blocked  or  dammed  the  streams. 


FIG.  50. 
A  boy  building  a  dam  to  form  a  pond  in  the  gutter. 

Also  it  was  stated  (p.  19)  that  the  earth  has  been  warped  or  bent 
upward  in  some  places,  forming  low  ridges,  or  even  lofty  mountain 
ranges.  In  this  way  the  ground  has  sometimes  slowly  risen  across 
river  valleys,  making  high  dams ;  in  such  cases  large  lakes  have  been 
formed. 

There  are  many  other  ways  in  which  dams  have  been  built,  espe- 
cially by  means  of  glaciers,  which  you  will  study  about  later. 

Most  ponds  and  lakes  have  been  formed  by  dams 
across  valleys. 


PONDS  AND  LAKES  55 

Since  a  lake  is  generally  a  part  of  a  stream,  it  is  evident 
that  water  must  flow  into  it.  The  river  that  flows  into 
a  lake  is  called  the  inlet,  and  that  which  flows  out  is 
called  the  outlet.  There  are  also  many  streams  entering 
from  the  sides.  Each  of  these  brings  sediment,  which  set- 
tles in  the  lake,  slowly  filling  it.  At  first  deltas  are  built 
opposite  to  the  stream  mouths ;  then,  in  time,  the  whole 
lake  is  filled  and  changed  to  a  swamp.  Many  a  swamp  is 
really  the  last  stage  in  the  life  of  a  lake. 

The  surface  of  a  lake  appears  to  be  level ;  but  one  part 
is  really  slightly  higher  than  the  other,  otherwise  the 
water  would  not  flow  out  of  it.  The  higher  part  of  the 
lake,  near  the  inlet,  is  called  the  head  of  the  lake,  the  lower 
part,  near  the  outlet,  the  foot  of  the  lake.  It  is  correct, 
then,  to  speak  of  going  up  or  down  a  lake,  just  as  we 
speak  of  going  up  or  down  a  river. 

Some  lakes  have  no  outlets,  because  there  is  so  little  water  that 
the  basin  cannot  fill  up  and  overflow.  This  has  a  very  peculiar  effect 
upon  the  water,  for  in  time  it  becomes  salt.  Probably  you  have  heard 
of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah.  These  are  salt  lakes 
of  this  kind,  and  no  one  would  drink  their  water,  even  if  he  were 
dying  of  thirst. 

But  why  do  such  lakes  become  salt  ?  There  is  some  salt  in  all  watef , 
even  in  that  which  we  drink,  although  so  little  that  we  do  not  notice  it. 
When  water  flows  into  a  lake,  the  salt  is  carried  with  it.  If  there  is 
no  outlet,  the  salt  can  go  no  further  ;  but  each  day  some  of  the  water 
is  changed  to  vapor  and  carried  away  in  the  air.  As  the  bits  of  salt 
cannot  go  off  in  this  way,  they  remain,  and  increase  in  number,  until, 
in  time,  the  water  becomes  so  salt  that  we  have  a  salt  lake. 

Most  lakes  have  inlets  and  outlets;  but  some,  having 
no  outlets,  become  salt. 

The  land  at  the  margin  of  a  river  is  called  the  lank, 
but  that  along  the  margin  of  a  lake  is  called  the  shore. 


56 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  51, 
A  sandy  beach  oil  a  lake  shore. 


Sometimes  the  lake  shore  is  low  and  wet,  being  over- 
grown with  swamp  plants.  Again,  it  is  pleasant  to  walk 
upon,  being  made  of  sand  and  pebbles  brought  there  by 
the  waves.  This  kind  of  shore  is  called  a  beach  (Fig.  51). 


FIG.  52. 
A  view  on  Moosehead  Lake  in  Maine.     Learn  what  each  of  the  names  means. 


PONDS  AND  LAKES  57 

Many  lake  shores  are  regular,  but  many  more  are  irreg- 
ular. In  some  places  points  of  land,  called  headlands,  ex- 
tend into  the  water  (Fig.  52).  If  small,  these  are  called 
points  or  capes;  if  large,  peninsulas.  A  narrow  neck 
of  land  joining  two  larger  pieces  is  an  isthmus.  Bodies  of 
land  entirely  surrounded  by  water  are  known  as  islands. 

The  water  that  is  partly  shut  in  between  two  headlands 
is  called  a  lay.  When  a  bay  has  deep  water,  and  is  so 
nearly  surrounded  by  land  that  vessels  can  enter  it  and 
be  protected  from  the  wind  and  waves,  it  is  called  a 
harbor.  A  narrow  strip  of  water  connecting  two  larger 
bodies  of  water  is  known  as  a  strait. 


FIG.  53. 

How  many  of  the  features  just  mentioned  can  you  find  in  this  picture?    Find 
some  also  on  Fig.  60. 

"When  the  water  gathers  behind  a  dam  to  form  a  lake,  it  enters 
many  valleys,  forming  bays  and  harbors,  with  capes,  and  perhaps 
islands  between.  This  is  the  chief  reason  for  the  irregular  shores 
of  many  lakes.  If  yon  will  make  a  little  valley  in  clay,  with  two  or 
three  tributaries  entering,  then  put  a  dam  across  it  and  fill  it  with 
water,  you  will  see  just  how  this  is  done. 

The  shores  of  lakes  are  often  irregular,  producing 
bodies  of  land  and  water  of  many  shapes. 


58 


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Ponds  and  lakes  are  useful  in  many  of  the  same  ways 
as  rivers.  They  help  to  keep  the  ground  moist ;  they 
furnish  water  to  cities,  and  they  supply  water  to  turn  the 
wheels  of  factories.  Beside  this,  many  valuable  fish  are 
caught  in  lakes,  and  much  ice  is  cut  from  their  surface. 

Again,  like  rivers,  lakes  are  important  waterways. 
Upon  large  lakes,  like  the  Great  Lakes,  hundreds  of  ves- 
sels are  going  and  coming,  carrying  men,  grain,  coal,  lum- 
ber, and  countless  other  things.  On  this  account  many 
people  have  settled  on  the  shores  of  large  lakes ;  and,  as  a 
result,  many  towns  and  cities  have  been  built  there.  Do 
you  know  of  any  ? 

The  shores  of  lakes  are  often  very  beautiful,  and  many  persons  go 
to  them  in  summer  to  hunt,  fish,  and  canoe.  There  are  hotels  there, 
too  (Fig.  52),  and  some  lakes  are  important  summer  resorts. 

Lakes  supply  drinking  water,  waterpower,  fish,  and 
ice.  They  are  also  useful  for  navigation  and  for  summer 
resorts. 

How  are  vessels  loaded  with  goods  ?  And  again,  how 
can  these  cargoes  be  unloaded?  Wagons  may  be  driven 
beside  a  railway  car,  and  be  filled  or  emptied  speedily. 

But  a  large 
boat  sinks 
down  many 
feet  into  the 
water  (Fig- 
54),  so  that  if 
it  came  near 
the  shore,  it 
might  strike 
FIG.  54.  the  bottom  and 

A  picture  to  show  how  deep  a  vessel  sinks  in  the  water.       be  wrecked. 


PONDS  AND  LAKES 


59 


FIG.  55. 

A  small  harbor  on  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
California. 


Fortunately,  here  and  there  along  the  lake  shore,  there 
are  small  bays  with  deep  water.  The  opening  is  large 
enough  for 
vessels  to  en- 
ter easily,  but 
small  enough 
to  keep  out  the 
fierce  waves. 
Here  we  have 
a  fine  harbor 
(Fig.  55). 

From  the 
shores  of  the 
harbor  men 

build  piers  of  wood  or  stone,  called  wharves.  These  reach 
into  the  deeper  water,  where  ships  may  be  fastened  or 
moored  to  them.  Wagons  can  be  driven  on  to  the  wharves, 
so  that  this  forms  a  convenient  and  safe  place  for  loading 
and  unloading  vessels.  Such  a  harbor  often  determines 
the  location  of  a  city. 

Large  cities  are  sometimes  found  on  parts  of  a  lake  shore  where  there 
are  no  such  natural  harbors.  In  that  case  harbors  have  to  be  made, 
even  though  it  is  expensive  to  do  so.  Walls  of  rock,  or  of  posts  driven 
deep  into  the  ground,  are  built  in  such  a  way  as  nearly  to  inclose  a 
body  of  water,  very  much  as  capes  inclose  the  water  of  a  natural  harbor. 
Such  a  wall  is  called  a  breakwater  (Fig.  56),  because  it  breaks  the 
force  of  the  waves,  and  prevents  them  from  entering  the  space  behind. 

When  a  harbor  is  not  deep  enough  for  vessels  to  enter,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  dig  out  the  dirt  and  rock  from  the  bottom.  This  is  quite 
often  done  in  the  inlet  and  outlet  streams  at  the  ends  of  a  lake. 

Harbors  are  places  where  vessels  find  safety  from 
storms  and  where  cargoes  are  loaded  and  unloaded 
with  ease. 


60  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  56. 
A  breakwater  built  in  a  place  where  the  coast  has  no  natural  harbor. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  are  dams  built  in  rivers  ?  (2)  Ex- 
plain how  ponds  are  made.  (3)  How  do  lakes  differ  from  ponds? 
(4)  How  are  lakes  made  ?  (5)  Tell  what  you  can  about  beaver 
dams.  (6)  In  what  other  ways  may  lake  dams  be  made  ?  (7)  What 
is  the  inlet  of  a  lake?  The  outlet?  The  head?  The  foot?  (8)  How 
does  it  happen  that  some  lakes  have  no  outlet?  (9)  What  about 
the  water  then?  Why? 

(10)  What  is  meant  by  shore?  By  beach?  (11)  What  do  you 
understand  by  a  regular  lake  shore?  (12)  Make  a  drawing  of  a 
cape;  peninsula;  isthmus;  island;  bay;  strait.  (13)  Tell  in  words 
what  each  of  these  is.  (14)  What  is  the  cause  of  these  irregularities? 
(15)  Mention  a  few  uses  of  ponds  and  lakes.  (16)  What  is  a  harbor? 
(17)  Why  must  the  water  be  deep?  (18)  How  can  a  harbor  protect 
ships  from  storms ?  (19)  What  is  a  wharf?  (20)  How  are  harbors 
often  made?  (21)  What  is  a  breakwater? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Build  a  dam  in  some  small  stream  and  note 
how  rapidly  the  water  collects.  (2)  Find  out  more  about  beavers. 

(3)  Look  for  a  pond  or  lake  and  examine  the  darn  that  caused  it. 

(4)  See  if  there  are  both  an  inlet  and  an  outlet.     (5)  Walk  up  the 


PONDS  AND  LAKES  61 

lake ;  walk  down  the  lake.  (6)  Examine  the  shore  and  notice  the 
different  forms  of  land  and  water.  (7)  Find  a  small  harbor.  Would 
every  bay  make  a  good  harbor?  (8)  Make  a  small,  irregular  hollow 
in  clay  and  fill  it  with  water  to  form  capes,  harbors,  and  islands. 
(9)  Find  some  of  these  in  the  pictures  and  maps  of  this  book. 

(10)  How  do  men  get  ice  from  a  lake  ?  (11)  In  what  ways  do  men 
catch  fish?  What  kinds  of  fish  have  you  seen  caught?  (12)  Find 
pictures  of  good  harbors.  Look  for  the  wharves  and  the  breakwater. 
(13)  Build  a  breakwater  to  form  a  little  harbor  in  a  small  stream  or 
pond.  (14)  Find  just  how  many  feet  some  of  our  largest  ships  sink 
into  the  water. 

(15)  Walk  toward  the  nearest  large  lake.  What  are  some  of  its 
tributaries?  Where  is  the  inlet  stream?  The  outlet?  What  are 
their  names?  (16)  Name  some  cities  that  are  on  lake  harbors. 
(17)  Write  a  story  telling  what  you  would  expect  to  see  along  a 
lake  shore. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  109. 


VII.    THE  OCEAN 

THE  great  rivers,  starting  as  tiny  brooks,  grow  into 
larger  and  still  larger  streams,  until,  after  days  and  per- 
haps weeks,  they  mingle  their  waters  in  the  ocean.  No 
doubt  much  of  the  rain  falling  in  your  neighborhood 
finally  reaches  the  sea  in  this  way  ;  and  if  you  could  float 
along  upon  it  in  a  light  boat,  in  time  you  too  would  reach 


FIG.  57. 

A  view  of  the  great  ocean.    Notice  the  sailing  vessel  in  the  distance  on  the 
right-hand  side. 

the  ocean.     How  large  is  this  body  of  water,  and  what 
are  some  other  interesting  facts  about  it  ? 

We  can  see  across  most  lakes,  and  can  sail  across  even 
the  largest  in  a  day  or  two  ;  but  the  ocean  is  far  larger. 
One  could  sail  upon  it  in  a  straight  line  for  weeks  with- 
out coming  to  any  land  (Fig.  57).  It  is  so  great  that  it 
surrounds  all  the  land  on  which  people  live,  and  no  matter 
in  which  direction  you  might  travel,  if  you  went  far 
enough  you  would  come  to  it. 

62 


THE  OCEAN  63 

If  you  were  to  start  out  to  reach  the  ocean,  the  journey 
might  last  many  days.  It  might  be  necessary  to  go  up 
hills  and  across  valleys,  to  pass  around  lakes,  and  possibly 
over  great  ranges  of  mountains.  You  would  be  surprised 
to  find  how  much  land  there  is,  and  how  many  farms, 
villages,  towns,  and  cities  there  are. 

But  there  is  far  more  water  than  land."  In  fact,  the 
water  covers  about  three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  and 
the  land  only  one-fourth.  If  one  were  to  travel  entirely 
around  the  earth,  he  would  probably  spend  much  more 
than  one -half  of  his  time  upon  the  ocean. 

The  ocean  is  so  immense  that  the  great  rivers  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth  pour  their  water  into  it.  Their  mouths  may  be  thousands  of 
miles  apart,  yet  the  sea  stretches  far  enough  to  reach  them  all. 

The  water  of  the  ocean  is  too  salt  to  drink;  but  river  water  is 
fresh.  Since  there  are  many  thousands  of  rivers  entering  the  sea, 
would  you  not  expect  that  their  water  would  make  the  ocean  less  salt? 
It  does  do  so  near  the  mouths  of  great  rivers ;  but  soon  it  becomes 
mixed  and  swallowed  up  in  the  salt  water.  This  is  another  way  of 
showing  the  size  of  the  ocean,  for  all  the  river  water  that  enters  it  is 
not  enough  to  make  ifc  fresh. 

The  salt  water  of  the  ocean  surrounds  all  the  land. 

Different  parts  of  the  ocean  have  different  names.  For 
instance,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  the  part  lying  between  the 
United  States  and  the  land  called  Europe,  where  the 
English,  German,  and  other  peoples  live.  We  buy  many 
articles  from  these  countries,  such  as  woollen  cloth,  knives, 
oranges,  and  olives;  and  they  likewise  purchase  other 
articles  from  us,  such  as  wheat,  cotton,  and  meat.  The 
way  to  reach  these  people  is  to  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  fastest  steamers  need  five  or  six  days  for  the  voyage. 

In  all  parts  of  the  earth,  the  ocean  is  a  great  highway.  It  is  so 
large  that  thousands  of  ships  are  travelling  upon  it  in  all  directions, 


64 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


carrying  people,  cattle,  grain,  fruit,  iron,  different  kinds  of  machines, 
and  many  other  things.  Although  there  are  so  many  ships,  the  ocean 
is  so  large  that  one  ship  may  sail  for  days  without  seeing  another. 

Ocean  navigation  is  therefore  a  great  business,  and  many 
thousands  of  men  are  engaged  in  it.  Most  of  the  ships 
used  are  larger  than  the  vessels  upon  lakes,  and  they  sink 
deeper  into  the  water  (Fig.  58).  Very  large  ones,  when 
loaded,  reach  down  about  thirty  feet  below  the  surface. 


FIG.  58. 

A  large  ocean  steamer,  one  that  sails  between  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
See  how  small  the  men  appear. 

Of  course  the  ships  meet  with  storms  upon  the  ocean,  as  upon  lakes. 
In  fact,  the  ocean  waves  are  at  times  so  high  that  they  sweep  over  and 
almost  cover  up  the  largest  vessels  (Fig.  59). 

The  coast  of  the  ocean  resembles  the  lake  shore  in  hav- 
ing capes,  peninsulas,  islands,  isthmuses,  straits,  and  bays 
(Fig.  60).  We  have  learned  (pp.  19  and  32)  that  the 
land  in  places  has  been  raised  or  lowered.  When  it  is 
lowered  near  the  seacoast,  the  water  enters  the  valleys 


THE  OCEAN 


65 


and  partly  drowns  the  land,  as  it  does  in  lakes  (p.  57). 
This  of  course  makes  an  irregular  coast. 


FIG.  59. 
Ocean  waves  during  a  storm. 

Naturally,  on  such  an  irregular  coast  there  are  harbors 
which  large  vessels  enter,  and  in  which  they  are  safe  from 
storms.  For  example,  New  York  harbor  is  so  broad  and 
deep  that  hundreds  of  ships  (Fig.  61)  are  found  in  it  at 
all  times,  either  loading  or  unloading  their  cargoes,  or 
waiting  for  storms  to  pass. 


FIG.  60. 

A  picture  of  Castine  harbor  on  the  irregular  coast  of  Maine.  Here  the  land 
has  been  lowered  so  that  the  salt  water  of  the  ocean  has  entered  the  val- 
leys, covering  their  bottoms,  but  leaving  the  hill-tops  as  islands,  capes,  etc. 


66 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Goods  are  brought  to  New  York,  not  only  from  Europe,  but  also 
.from  China  and  Australia,  and  in  fact,  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  the  tea  and  coffee  which  are  used  on  your 
table,  and  the  bananas  and  oranges  which  you  have  eaten,  were 
brought  over  the  ocean  and  unloaded  in  this  harbor.  If  not,  they 
were  unloaded  in  some  other  fine  harbor,  such  as  Boston,  San  Fran- 
cisco, or  Philadelphia. 

Since  the  ocean  easily  connects  such  harbors  with  all 
parts  of  the  world,  it  is  natural  that  great  cities  should 


FIG.  61. 

A  view  among  the  ships  along  the  wharves  of  New  York  Harbor.    The  great 
Brooklyn  Bridge  is  seen  behind  the  masts. 

spring  up  where  the  best  ocean  harbors  are  found.  It  is 
partly  on  this  account  that  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Bos- 
ton, and  San  Francisco  have  become  such  large  cities. 

Vessels  come  toward  these  seaports  from  all  parts  of  the  world ; 
but  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell  just  where  to  enter  the  harbors,  espe- 
cially at  night.  Ships  are  in  danger  of  going  out  of  the  way,  and  of 
running  upon  rocks,  or  reefs,  in  the  shallow  water  near  the  coast 
(Fig.  62).  On  that  account,  tall  lighthouses  are  built  on  many 


THE  OCEAN 


67 


Fio.  62. 
A  vessel  wrecked  by  running  aground  upon  a  shallow  reef. 

islands  and  capes,  so  that  captains  may  know  by  their  lights  which 
way  to  go  in  order  to  enter  the  harbors  (Fig.  63). 

The  ocean  is  a  great  watemvay,  connecting  different 
parts  of  the  world. 

Not  only  are  goods  carried  on  vessels,  but  many  men  go  out  in 
them,  often  out  of  sight  of  land,  in  order  to  catch  the  fish  which 
live  in  such  great  numbers  in  the  sea.  Instead  of  hooks  and  lines, 
long  nets  are  often  used,  and  in  them  so  many  fish  are  caught  that 


A  lighthouse  on  a  rocky  point. 

tower  so  that  it  may  be  seen  far  away. 


FIG.  03. 
A  bright  light  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the 


68  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

the  vessel  is  loaded  down  with  them.  No  doubt  some  of  the  mackerel 
that  you  have  eaten  have  been  caught  in  this  way.  Picture  67,  p.  73, 
shows  a  vessel  that  is  used  to  catch  ocean  fish. 

In  summer  the  ocean  shore  is  cooler  than  the  land  far- 
away from  the  sea.  This  is  because  the  air  is  cooled  as 
it  passes  over  the  water.  Many  people  therefore  go  to 
the  seashore  to  avoid  the  hot  weather,  just  as  others  go 
to  the  mountains.  Here  they  spend  day  after  day  climb- 
ing about  over  the  rocks  or  walking  upon  the  clean, 


FIG.  04. 

Old  Orchard  Beach  on  the  New  England  coast.  Notice  the  large  numher  of 
summer  visitors  strolling  over  the  cool,  hard  beach,  or  bathing  in  the 
shallow  water. 

sandy  beach,  breathing  the  fresh  air,  enjoying  the  beauti- 
ful scenery,  and  bathing  in  the  cool  salt  water  (Fig.  64). 

,On  this  account  many  houses,  and  even  towns,  have  been  built  at 
those  places  along  the  seashore  where  people  wish  to  spend  their  vaca- 
tions. There  are  large  hotels  to  accommodate  the  visitors;  and  in 
the  summer  these  places  are  crowded ;  but  very  few  people  remain  at 
the  summer  resorts  during  the  winter. 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the  ocean  is  even  more 
useful  to  man.  It  is  the  sea-water  which  supplies  us 


THE  OCEAN 


69 


with  moisture,  so  that  there  can  be  rain.  If  it  were  not 
for  the  great  ocean,  very  little  rain  would  fall.  So  every 
one  is  deeply  indebted  to  the  ocean,  even  though  he  may 
live  thousands  of  miles  from  it.  Soon  you  will  learn 
(p.  74)  how  its  water  reaches  us  in  the  form  of  rain. 

The  seashore  is  a  popular  summer  resort;  the  ocean 
water  supplies  food  and  makes  rain  possible. 

Rivers,  lakes,  and  the  ocean  present  many  beautiful  views.  You 
may  have  observed  that  in  cities,  where  people  plan  for  fine  parks, 
they  arrange,  if  possi- 
ble, to  have  a  lake  or 
stream  as  part  of  the 
scenery.  A  body  of 
water,  even  if  but  a 
brook,  greatly  im- 
proves a  view. 

A  brook  is  a  beau- 
tiful object  (Fig.  65). 
How  pleasant  to  see 
its  green  banks,  to 
listen  to  its  rippling 
waters,  and  to  watch 


its  tiny  rapids,  whirl- 
pools, and  falls,  as  it 
travels  onward  to  the 


FIG.  65. 

A  quaint  New  England  bridge  across  a  beautiful 

brook, 
ocean ! 

Rivers  are  not  less  attractive ;  like  the  brooks,  their  rushing  waters 
seem  to  tell  a  story,  and  one  loves  to  linger  by  them,  to  listen  and  to 
look.  At  times,  when  swollen  by  floods,  they  are  wild  and  savage ; 
again  they  are  quiet,  peaceful,  and  beautiful.  They  wind  in  and 
out  among  the  steep  and  wooded  hills ;  now  they  flow  along  noise- 
lessly, then  they  rush  over  rapids  and  falls  with  a  roar ;  here  their 
banks  are  low  and  green,  there  they  are  high,  steep,  and  rocky. 

The  lakes  and  the  ocean  are  sparkling  sheets  of  silvery  water,  often 
dotted  here  and  there  with  white  sails.  Sometimes  the  color  is  green, 
again  it  is  blue ;  and  when  the  clouds  hang  over  it,  it  is  dark  and 


70  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

gloomy.  There  are  beautiful  sunrises  and  sunsets  to  watch;  and 
one  can  see  the  storms  come  and  go,  with  the  waves  dashing  into 
the  whitest  of  foam.  In  fact,  the  water,  the  sky,  and  the  coast  are 
always  changing  in  appearance,  so  that  the  lake  shore  and  the  sea- 
shore are  among  the  most  attractive  of  places. 

TJie  land  and  the  water  together  furnish  many  beau- 
tiful views. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  What  place  does  the  water  of  brooks 
and  rivers  finally  reach  ?  (2)  How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  water ? 
(3)  What  other  facts  show  that  the  ocean  is  very  large  ?  (4)  Tell 
about  ocean  navigation.  (5)  What  is  the  cause  for  irregular  ocean 
shores  ?  (6)  Tell  what  you  can  about  New  York  harbor.  (7)  Why 
are  large  cities  found  on  the  fine  ocean  harbors  ?  (8)  Of  what  use 
are  lighthouses?  (9)  Name  some  foods  obtained  from  the  ocean. 
(10)  Why  do  many  people  go  to  the  seashore  in  summer  ? 

(11)  Do  you  know  of  any  park  or  meadow  with  a  stream  or  lake 
in  it?  If  so,  describe  it.  (12)  Did  you  ever  enjoy  watching  the 
water?  Where  was  it?  (13)  How  does  the  surface  of  a  lake  or 
ocean  change  at  different  times? 

SUGGESTIONS. — (1)  In  what  direction  would  you  go  to  reach  the 
ocean?  How  far  is  it?  (2)  Find  pictures  of  large  harbors  with 
ships  in  them.  (3)  Name  several  seaport  cities.  (4)  Have  some  one 
tell  you  about  a  journey  across  the  ocean.  (5)  Name  as  many  arti- 
cles as  you  can  that  come  from  over  the  ocean.  (6)  How  does  the 
captain  of  a  vessel  know  in  what  direction  he  is  going,  after  losing 
sight  of  land  ?  (7)  How  are  s-hips  made  to  move  through  the  water? 
(8)  What  use  is  made  of  whales?  (9)  Find  out  how  fish  are  caught. 
(10)  Ask  some  one  who  has  visited  a  summer  resort  on  the  seashore 
to  tell  you  about  it.  (11)  Is  there  any  brook  or  river  that  you  enjoy 
visiting?  Where  is  it  most  beautiful?  (12)  Tell  about  some  of  the 
storms  on  the  ocean  described  in  Robinson  Crusoe.  (13)  Do  you 
know  of  any  views  that  are  made  more  beautiful  by  the  presence 
of  water?  If  so,  where  are  they?  Describe  them.  (14)  Collect, 
from  magazines,  pictures  of  beautiful  views  with  water  in  them. 
(15)  Write  a  story,  telling  what  you  would  expect  to  see  in  crossing 
the  ocean.  (16)  Make  a  drawing  of  a  ship. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  109, 


VIII.    THE   AIR 

SINCE  air  cannot  be  seen,  people  often  forget  that  it 
really  is  something  ;  but  a  fire  will  not  burn  without  it, 
and  plants,  animals,  and  men  must  have  it  to  breathe.  In 
fact,  drowning  means  nothing  more  than  sinking  under 
water,  where  there  is  not  enough  air  to  breathe. 

This  is  proof  that  the  air  is  really  something,  even 
though  it  cannot  be  seen ;  and  you  can  prove  the  same 
thing  in  other  ways.  For  instance,  if  you  stand  with 
your  face  to  a  breeze,  you  feel  the  air  moving.  Some- 
times this  movement  of  the  air,  which  we  call  wind,  is  so 
rapid  that  it  blows  down  trees  and  houses. 

Here  is  an  experiment  to  prove  that  the  air  is  something  and  that 
it  fills  space. 

Find  an  empty  bottle  without  a  cork  and  sink  it  in  water  with  the 
open  end  up.  Notice  the  gurgling  noise  as  the  bubbles  of  air  rise  to 
the  surface,  while  the  bottle  slowly  fills.  Where  does  this  air  come 
from  ?  And  why  does  not  the  bottle  fill  more  quickly  ?  You  see  that 
although  we  called  the  bottle  empty,  it  was  really  filled  with  air  which 
could  not  be  seen.  The  water  could  not  enter  the  bottle  until  it  pushed 
the  air  out,  because  the  bottle  could  not  be  filled  with  two  substances 
at  the  same  time.  So,  as  the  air  was  leaving,  the  water  was  entering. 

If  the  bottle  is  turned  bottom  upward,  and  pushed  perfectly  straight 
into  water,  the  air  will  be  given  no  chance  to  slip  out,  and  then  the 
bottle  cannot  be  filled  with  water. 

Air  is  something  real  and  occupies  space. 

There  is  air  all  around  the  earth,  and  it  extends  many 
miles  above  us.  This  air,  often  called  the  atmosphere,  is 

71 


72 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


usually  in  motion,  now  in  one  direction,  now  in  another, 
and  it  often  moves  fast  enough  to  cause  a  breeze,  or  wind. 

Even  when  the  wind  is  not  blowing  near  the  ground,  it  may  be 
doing  so  far  above,  where  the  clouds  are.  You  can  see  that  this  is 
so,  if  you  watch  the  clouds  as  they  are  driven  along  by  the  winds. 

Let  us  see  what  causes  the  air  to  move.  Heat  has 
much  to  do  with  it.  If  you  watch  smoke  in  a  room  where 

there  is  a  lighted 
lamp,  you  will  see 
that  it  moves  toward 
the  lamp,  and  then 
rises  above  it  (Fig. 
66).  Hot  air  also 
rises  above  a  stove, 
or  above  a  furnace 
through  the  regis- 
ters ;  and  during  the 
winter,  when  there 
is  a  hot  fire,  the  air 
near  the  ceiling  of 
a  room  is  much 
warmer  than  that 
near  the  floor. 


FIG.  66. 

The  smoke  of  a  cigar  rising  from  the  table  above 
the  lighted  lamp. 


The  reason  for  all  this  is,  that  when  air  is  warmed,  it 
is  expanded  and  made  lighter.  Light  objects,  such  as 
wood,  will  rise  and  float  in  water.  So,  also,  when  air  is 
warmed  and  made  light  near  a  lamp,  the  cooler,  heavy  air 
all  around  flows  toward  the  lamp  and  the  warm  air  is 
forced  to  rise.  It  is,  in  fact,  pushed  up  by  the  current  of 
heavy,  cool  air. 

Now  we  can  understand  the  cause  of  winds.     The  at- 


THE  AIR 


73 


mospliere  in  one  place,  perhaps  to  the  north  of  you,  is 
colder  than  that  where  you  are.  This  cold  air,  being  denser 
and  heavier  than  the  warm  air,  begins  to  push  it  away, 
and  thus  moves  toward  you,  forming  a  cold  north  wind. 

People  on  the  sea  or  lake  shore  often  have  such  winds  in  summer, 
when,  during  a  hot  day,  the  air  over  the  land  becomes  heated,  while 
that  over  the  water  remains  cool.  The  cool  air  then  commences  to 
move  landward,  and  a  cool  sea  breeze  begins  to  blow. 

Whenever  the  air  is  heavy  in  one  place,  and  light  in 
another,  winds  will  blow  toward  the  place  where  it  is 
light.  Since  this  lightness  of  the  air  is  usually  caused  by 
heat,  we  say  that 

Most  winds  are  caused  by  differences  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air. 


Winds  are  useful  in  many  ways, 
vessels  through 
the  water,  and 
they  turn  wind- 
mills (Fig.  68), 
which  are  often 
used  to  pump 
water  from  wells. 
But  what  is  most 
important,  they 
carry  water  all 
over  the  earth. 
At  all  times 
there  is  enough 
water  in  the  at- 
mosphere to  fill 
many  large  lakes. 


They  drive  sailing 


FIG.  67. 

A  sailing  vessel  driven  through  the  water  by  the 
wind.  This  is  a  fishing  schooner  going  out  of  the 
harbor  of  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  after  a  load 
of  fish. 


74  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

You  know  that  there  must  be  some  water  in  the  air,  for 
wet  clothes  hung  out  on  a  line  become  dry  as  the  water 
passes  off  into  the  air. 

Some  of  the  water  in  the  atmosphere  enters 
it  after  every   rainstorm,    when   the   muddy 
roads  and  wet  fields  are  drying  ;  but  most  of 
it  comes  from  rivers,  lakes,   and  the  ocean. 
We   have  already  learned   (p.    63)   that  the 
ocean  covers  about  three-fourths  of  the  sur- 
face  of  the  earth.     The  air  is  taking  water 
from   all   parts   of    it,    so   that   each   minute 
enough  water  to  fill  thousands  and  thousands 
of  barrels  is  leaving  the  ocean  and   floating 
away  in  the  atmosphere. 
Another  reason  why  we  know  that  there  must  be  much 
water  in  the  air,  is  that  much  comes  out  of  it  in  the  form 
of  rain,  snow,  hail,  dew,  and  frost. 

The  air  takes  up  water  from  one  place  and  holds  it,  per- 
haps for  many  days,  during  which  time  the  winds  may 
have  carried  it  hundreds  of  miles ;  it  may  then  be  allowed 
to  fall.  Thus  it  is  by  the  help  of  the  wind  that  rocks  are 
wet  and  caused  to  change  to  soil,  plants  are  made  to  grow, 
rivers  are  furnished  with  water,  and  animals  and  people 
are  given  water  to  drink. 

Persons  living  where  there  is  plenty  of  rain  perhaps  do 
not  realize  how  important  it  is  ;  but  there  are  some  parts 
of  the  earth  where  the  air  is  so  dry  that  very  little  rain 
can  fall  from  it.  In  these  places,  called  deserts  (Fig.  69), 
only  a  few  kinds  of  plants  and  animals  can  live,  while  men 
generally  avoid  them. 

The  air  takes  water  from  the  ocean,  and  the  winds 
carry  it  about, 


THE  AIR 


75 


What  causes  water  to  rise  into  the  air  ?  And  why  can 
we  not  see  it  there  ?  If  you  watch  a  boiling  kettle,  you 
will  see  that  "  steam  "  rises  from  it.  In  a  short  time  all 
the  water  will  be  boiled  out  of  the  kettle,  passing  into  the 
air,  where  you  can  no  longer  see  it. 

The  water  in  the  kettle  was  a  liquid,  which  could  be  seen ; 
but  heat  has  changed  it  to  a  gas,  which,  like  air,  is  colorless 
and  cannot  be  seen.  Then,  too,  it  is  so  light  that  it  floats 


Fio.  09. 

Camels  crossing  the  desert.    Notice  how  barren  it  is. 

round  in  the  air.  This  water  gas  is  called  water  vapor,  and 
the  change  from  liquid  water  to  vapor  is  called  evaporation. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  boil  water  to  make  it  evaporate  ; 
for  all  over  the  earth,  where  there  is  water,  vapor  is  rising 
from  it  into  the  air.  You  can  prove  this  for  yourself  by 
placing  a  pan  of  water  on  a  table  and  leaving  it  for  some 
days,  and  then  noticing  how  much  of  it  has  evaporated. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  great  amount  of  water,  which 
every  moment  is  rising  from  the  ocean,  is  able  to  pass 
into  the  atmosphere. 

Water  vapor  is  obtained  by  evaporation. 


76 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


When  it  falls  from  the  sky  as  rain,  the  water  vapor  has 
changed  back  to  liquid  water.  What  causes  it  to  do 
this? 

Have  you  ever  noticed  a  glass  or  pitcher  of  ice  water 
"sweat"  on  a  hot  summer  day  (Fig.  70)?  The  water 
that  collects  on  the  glass  has  not  leaked  through,  for  there 
are  no  holes  in  the  glass.  What  has  really  happened  is 
that  the  air  near  the  dish  has 
been  cooled  so  that  the  vapor  has 
collected  in  drops  on  the  cold  sur- 
face of  the  glass.  Drops  would 
gather  there  just  the  same,  even  if 
no  water  were  in  the  glass,  pro- 
vided the  surface  remained  just  as 
cold. 

On  wash  day,  when  a  great 
deal  of  water  vapor  rises  from  the 
boiler,  the  windows  are  often  cov- 
ered with  drops  of  water,  because 
the  vapor  has  been  changed  back 
to  liquid,  or  condensed,  on  the  cold 
window  pane.  Your  own  breath 
contains  vapor,  and  you  can  change 
it  to  water  by  breathing  on  a  cold 
window  pane.  So  you  see  that  if 
air  loaded  with  vapor  is  cooled,  some  of  the  vapor  gas  is 
changed  back  to  water. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  air  may  be  cooled. 
You  know  that  mountains  are  colder  than  the  lower 
lands  (p.  20)  ;  so  that  winds  blowing  over  them  are  often 
chilled,  and  their  vapor  condensed.  It  is  evident  from 
this  that  mountains  are  an  important  help  in  causing  rain. 


FIG.  70. 

Little  drops  of  water  con- 
densed from  the  vapor  of 
the  air  on  the  outside  of 
a  glass  of  cold  water. 


THE  AIR 


77 


Vapor  may  also  be  condensed  when  a  cold  wind  blows 
against  a  warm  one.  Again,  during  summer  the  sun  may 
shine  down  so  hot  that  the  air  near  the  earth  becomes 
warm.  This  makes  it  so  light  that  it  often  rises  high  into 
the  sky,  where  the  air  is  so  cold  that  the  vapor  condenses 
into  rain.  The  summer  thunder  showers,  which  often 
come  on  hot  afternoons,  are  caused  in  this  way. 

Yapor  is  condensed  l>y  the  cooling  of  the  air. 


FIG.  71. 
Clouds  formed  upon  the  mountain  sides  because  the  air  has  been  chilled. 

There  are  several  different  forms  of  condensed  vapor. 
When  you  breathe  into  the  air  on  a  cold,  frosty  morning, 
your  breath  forms  a  little  fog  or  cloud.  The  cold  air  has 
made  the  vapor  change  to  tiny  particles  of  water,  so  small 
that  you  cannot  see  a  single  one,  though  many  of  them 
together  make  a  thin  mist.  You  have  no  doubt  seen  fogs 
in  Aralleys,  on  lakes,  or  over  the  ocean.  These  are  always 
made  of  tiny  drops  of  water  condensed  from  vapor  in 
the  air. 

Most  clouds  are  also  made  of  tiny  fog  and  mist  parti- 
cles. These,  too,  are  caused  by  the  cooling  of  the  air, 


78 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


sometimes  when  it  moves  against  mountain  slopes  (Fig. 
71),  sometimes  when  cold  winds  blow  against  warm  ones, 
and  sometimes  when  warm  air  rises  high  in  the  heavens 

and   becomes    cool    (Fig. 
72). 

Another  form  of  con- 
densed vapor  is  the  rain- 
drop which  falls  from 
the  clouds.  These  drops 
begin  as  tiny  mist  or 
fog  particles,  and  then, 
becoming  larger  and 


larger,     grow     so    heavy 


FIG.  72. 

A  summer  cloud,  often  called  a  "thun- 
der head,"  formed  by  the  rising  of     that  they  can  no   longer 

warm  air  to  such  a  height  that  the       float    ^ut  must  fall  to  the 
vapor  is  condensed. 

ground. 

We  have  seen  that  water  may  be  either  a  liquid  or  a 
gas.  There  is  still  another  form,  the  solid,  which  is  pro- 
duced when  vapor  con- 
denses in  a  temperature 
below  32°,  or  the  freezing 
point.  Then  snow  or  hail 
is  formed  instead  of  rain 
(Fig.  73). 

At  night,  drops  of  water 
often  collect  on  the  cold 
ground,  on  grass  and 
leaves,  somewhat  as  it  does 
on  an  ice  pitcher  or  the 
window  pane.  This  is  dew,  which  gathers  because  the 
ground  cools  quickly  after  the  sun  sets,  so  that  the  warm, 
vapor-laden  air  is  chilled  until  the  vapor  is  condensed. 


FIG.  73. 

Photographs  of  snowflakes.  Some- 
time, when  light,  feathery  snow  is 
falling,  notice  what  beautiful  forms 
it  takes. 


THE  AIR  79 

If  the  temperature  is  below  the  freezing-point,  frost  is 
formed  instead. 

You  will  notice  that  raindrops,  fog  particles,  and  snow- 
flakes  form  in  the  air,  while  dew  gathers  on  grass  and  the 
drops  of  water  on  window  panes.  Keally  the  raindrops 
and  fog  particles  also  gather  on  solid  substances  ;  for 
there  are  many  tiny,  solid  particles  of  dust  floating  in  the 
air,  which  you  can  often  see  dancing  in  a  beam  of  sun- 
light, and  it  is  around  these  that  the  rain,  fog,  and  snow 
form. 

It  is  condensed  vapor  that  forms  fojj>,  mist,  rain, 
snow,  hail,  dew,  and  frost. 

Usually  winds  from  certain  directions,  as  from  the 
ocean,  are  liable  to  bring  rain,  while  others  indicate  fair 
weather.  By  keeping  a  daily  record  of  the  direction  of 
the  wind,  and  of  the  kind  of  weather  it  brings,  you  will 
be  able  to  find  out  for  yourself  which  of  your  winds 
cause  fair  weather  and  which  rainy.  You  might  also 
look  at  the  thermometer  at  the  same  time  and  note  the 
temperature.  By  these  means  you  can  learn  something 
about  the  weather  around  your  home.  A  record  of  this 
kind,  which  would  be  called  a  weather  record,  might  be 
kept  somewhat  as  follows:  * 


DATE  AND  TIME  OF  DAY. 

DIRECTION  OF  WIND. 

KIND  OF  WEATHEK. 

TEMP. 

Aug.  17,  1899,  8  A.M. 
Aug.  17,  1899,  8  P.M. 
Aug.  18,  1899,  8  A.M. 

Southeast. 
Calm. 
West. 

Cloudy. 
Gentle  Rain. 
Clear. 

70° 

72° 
68° 

1  If  it  is  practicable,  the  teacher  should  at  this  point  introduce  an  ele- 
mentary study  of  weather  maps  and  have  the  pupils  read  them  each  day. 


80  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Of  what  use  is  air?  (2)  How  can  you 
prove  that  air  is  something  ?  (3)  Describe  the  experiments  with 
the  bottle.  (4)  What  do  they  prove?  (5)  What  are  winds? 
(6)  Prove  that  there  are  winds  high  above  the  ground.  (7)  Why 
does  the  air  rise  over  a  lighted  lamp  ?  (8)  What  causes  winds  ?  (9)  In 
what  ways  are  winds  useful?  (10)  How  can  you  prove  that  there 
is  water  in  the  air?  (11)  Where  does  most  of  it  come  from? 
(12)  What  do  the  winds  do  with  this  water  ?  (13)  Of  what  service 
is  the  rain  ?  (14)  What  becomes  of  water  as  it  boils  ?  (15)  What  is 
water  vapor?  (16)  What  is  evaporation ? 

(17)  What  happens  to  vapor  when  cooled?  (18)  Tell  some 
ways  in  which  you  can  see  condensed  vapor.  (19)  In  what  ways  can 
the  vapor  in  the  air  be  condensed?  (20)  Why  can  you  "see  your 
breath  "  on  cold  mornings?  (21)  How  are  clouds  formed?  (22)  How 
cold  must  it  be  to  form  snow  ?  (23)  How  is  dew  caused  ?  Frost  ? 
(24)  Of  what  importance  are  the  dust  particles  in  the  air?  (25)  Tell 
how  you  would  keep  a  weather  record. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  are  stoves  made  so  as  to  let  in  air  for  the 
fire?  (2)  What  becomes  of  the  air  after  it  enters?  (3)  How  does 
air  reach  the  wick  of  a  lamp  ?  (4)  Try  a  common  drinking  glass, 
instead  of  a  bottle,  to  show  that  air  takes  up  space.  (5)  Heat  some 
muddy  water  and  watch  its  movement.  (6)  WThy  does  smoke  go  up, 
and  not  down,  the  chimney?  (7)  Show  how  a  hot  stove  causes  a 
movement,  or  circulation,  of  the  air  in  a  room.  (8)  Find  out  how 
your  schoolhouse  is  ventilated.  (9)  How  many  examples  can  you 
give  of  evaporation  of  water  ?  (10)  Cool  a  piece  of  glass  or  iron  and 
notice  the  vapor  condense  upon  it,  when  the  air  is  "muggy"  or  when 
steam  is  passing  into  the  air.  (11)  Why  do  clouds  frequently  sur- 
round mountain  tops  ?  (12)  See  how  early  in  the  evening  the  dew 
begins  to  collect  upon  the  ground.  (13)  What  causes  fogs  to  dis- 
appear? (14)  Wrhich  winds  usually  bring  rain  to  you?  (15)  How 
far  have  they  probably  carried  the  vapor  ?  How  long  would  it  take 
them  to  do  this,  if  they  travelled  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  per  hour  ? 
•(16)  Write  a  story,  giving  the  history  of  a  raindrop. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  109. 


IX.     INDUSTRY   AND   COMMERCE 

EVERY  man  is  expected  to  engage  in  some  kind  of 
work,  or  industry,  in  order  to  earn  a  living.  For  instance, 
farmers  raise  stock  and  grain,  while  gardeners  produce 
vegetables  and  fruit.  The  crops  they  raise  vary  with 
the  locality. 

Some  men,  instead  of  working  in  the  soil,  are  engaged 
in  manufacturing  such  articles  as  shoes,  cloth,  and  ma- 
terials used  in  building  and  furnishing  houses.  Are 
there  any  of  these  men  in  your  vicinity  ?  If  so,  what  do 
they  make  ?  You  can  at  least  find  a  blacksmith  shop,  or 
a  tin  shop,  or  a  house  that  is  being  built.  Notice  how 
many  different  materials  are  used  by  the  workmen. 

Storekeepers  do  neither  of  these  two  kinds  of  work. 
What,  then,  do  they  do  ?  Notice  how  many  articles  the 
grocer  keeps  in  his  store,  also  the  dry-goods  merchant, 
and  others  whose  stores  you  visit.  Where  do  they  get 
them  all  ? 

At  the  present  time  it  is  eas}r,  where  most  of  us  live,  to 
buy  almost  anything,  and  to  find  men  who  can  do  almost 
any  kind  of  work.  We  are  so  accustomed  to  all  this 
that  we  are  apt  to  forget  that  it  has  not  always  been  so. 

Not  many  hundred  years  ago  there  were  no  stores  or 
houses  in  this  country  ;    and  each  family,  as  it  settled 
here,  was  obliged  to  find  its  own  food,  make  its  own 
clothing,  and  build  its  own  house. 
G  81 


82 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Let  us  study  more  fully  how  people  lived  in  those  days, 
and  how  changes  have  gradually  been  made  until  the 
present  manner  of  living  was  reached. 

The  first  persons  who  left  Europe,  and  crossed  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  live  in  this  country,  naturally  settled 
along  the  coast,  because  that  was  the  first  place  reached. 

But  soon  men  began  to  push  into  the  wilderness 
further  west.  Often  several  families  settled  together, 
miles  away  from  other  people.  Sometimes  a  single 
family  would  go  off  alone,  and  make  a  home  ten  or 
twelve  miles  from  the  nearest  neighbor.  Most  of  the 
United  States  was  first  settled  by  these  scattered  pioneer 
families. 

Of  course  when  a  man  started  out  he  took  some  articles 
with  him,  as  a  gun,  with  powder  and  bullets,  some  cloth- 
ing, and  some  blankets  ;  but  upon  arriving  at  his  new 

home  he  was  obliged, 
like  Robinson  Crusoe, 
to  rely  upon  himself. 

In  1816,  when  Abraham 
Lincoln  was  seven  years  of 
age,  his  father  moved  to 
Indiana.  He  had  to  cut 
down  trees  in  order  to  make 
room  for  a  house,  which  he 
built  of  logs  with  mud  be- 
tween the  cracks  (Fig.  74). 
It  had  no  floor  except  the 
earth,  and  only  one  room.  Abraham  slept  in  the  loft,  climbing  up 
each  night  by  pegs  fastened  in  the  logs.  The  beds  were  some  posts 
driven  into  the  ground  with  cross-pieces ;  the  chairs  were  three-legged 
stools,  and  the  table  was  a  part  of  a  log  supported  upon  four  legs. 
When  a  young  boy,  Abraham  wore  trousers  of  deerskin,  and  when 
he  was  not  barefooted  he  probably  used  moccasins  for  shoes. 


FIG.  74. 

A  log  house,  such  as  the  pioneers  used  to 
build  in  the  forests. 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE  83 

His  father  raised  enough  corn  for  corn  bread ;  their  tea  was  often 
made  from  roots  in  the  forest,  and  meat  was  obtained  by  shooting 
wild  game.  Abraham  was  very  fond  of  books ;  but  at  night  he  read 
by  the  light  of  burning  wood,  for  he  had  no  candle  or  lamp.  He 
wrote  with  ink  made  from  brier-root,  and  with  a  pen  made  from  the 
quill  of  a  large  feather.  Almost  everything  that  the  family  used  was 
raised  or  made  by  the  father  and  mother,  so  that  they  had  to  do 
many  kinds  of  work. 

Other  pioneers  lived  in  much  the  same  manner.  Usu- 
ally they  raised  their  grain  and  wheat  for  bread.  They 
kept  sheep  and  made  the  wool  into  yarn,  blankets,  and 
cloth.  If  a  boy  needed  a  new  suit  of  clothes,  his  mother 
would  make  the  cloth,  cut  it,  and  sew  it.  They  were 
obliged  to  do  nearly  everything  for  themselves. 

As  a  rule,  each  man  raised  more  of  some  things  than 
his  own  family  could  use,  as  wheat,  wool,  or  hogs ;  but 
there  were  others  that  he  had  to  buy,  as  powder,  sugar, 
salt,  pepper,  and  coffee. 

It  was  the  custom,  therefore,  to  drive  two  or  three  times 
a  year  to  the  nearest  large  town,  perhaps  a  hundred  miles 
away,  taking  the  products  of  the  farm  and  exchanging 
them  for  necessary  articles. 

These  trips  had  to  be  few,  for  the  roads  were  often 
rough,  muddy,  and  dangerous.  It  might  require  two 
weeks  or  more  to  haul  a  load  of  grain  to  town  and  bring 
back  the  coffee  and  other  materials  the  family  wanted. 
In  parts  of  the  world,  where  there  are  few  settlers,  people 
are  still  living  in  this  manner. 

But  one  family  did  not  usually  live  long  alone,  for  soon 
others  came  and  settled  near  them.  Perhaps  several  built 
their  houses  near  together,  forming  a  little  village. 

Now  that  there  were  more  people,  the  kind  of  work 


84  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

that  each  did  began  to  change.  Perhaps  one  of  them 
built  a  saw-mill,  and  sawed  lumber  for  the  others  when 
they  needed  it.  Another  spent  part  of  his  time  at  car- 
pentry work  for  his  neighbors.  A  third  built  a  grist-mill, 
and  occasionally  ground  grain  into  flour.  A  fourth  made 
shoes,  or  clothes,  a  part  of  his  time,  or  he  doctored  the 
sick,  or  preached,  or  taught  school. 

Perhaps  the  blacksmith  spent  all  of  his  time  in  his  shop,  shoeing 
horses,  making  ploughs,  etc.,  while  the  storekeeper  did  nothing  but 
buy  and  sell  goods.  He  went  to  the  city  and  bought  the  supplies  that 
he  thought  his  neighbors  would  need,  such  as  matches,  boots,  shovels, 
calico,  and  drugs,  and  these  he  kept  in  his  store  for  sale. 

It  was  not  then  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  go  to  the 
distant  town,  because  he  could  usually  find  what  he  wanted 
at  the  store  ;  and  if  he  raised  more  potatoes  than  he  needed, 
he  could  take  them  to  the  storekeeper  and  get  coffee  in 
return.  Or  he  would  receive  money  for  them,  and  with 
this  pay  the  blacksmith  who  had  shod  his  horses,  or  the 
doctor,  or  teacher.  In  many  of  the  less  settled  parts  of 
the  country  this  is  the  way  people  are  still  living. 

Each  year  more  people  took  up  land,  until  most  of  it 
was  carefully  cultivated,  and  towns  and  cities  grew  up 
(Fig.  75).  Then  they  began  to  live  in  the  way  that  is 
now  so  common.  That  is,  each  man  now  confines  himself 
to  one  or  a  very  few  kinds  of  work,  and  depends  upon  other 
men  for  the  other  things  that  he  needs.  Those  who  live 
in  the  country  are  chiefly  farmers,  and  raise  the  food  that 
we  eat.  Others  work  in  mines,  digging  coal,  iron,  lead, 
copper,  silver,  or  gold  out  of  the  ground. 

Many,  instead  of  raising  crops  or  working  in  mines,  are 
employed  in  mills  and  factories.  One  saws  logs  into 
lumber,  or  makes  doors ;  another  manufactures  cloth, 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE 


85 


another  needles,  another  shoes.  Others  follow  the  indus- 
try of  tailoring-,  tanning  hides  for  leather,  making  clocks, 
etc. 

Still  others  are  engaged  in  a  third  kind  of  work.    They 
do  nothing  but  buy  and  sell  such  articles,  and  among  these 

are  all  the  merchants      , , 

that   we    see   in    the 
stores. 

Under  these  conditions 
the  work  that  one  man 
does  is  not  only  of  one 
kind,  but  it  may  be  of  a 
very  narrow  kind.  For 
example,  a  man  may  do 
nothing  but  drive  a  team. 
Or  he  may  make  shingles, 
or  drive  nails,  or  tie  jip 
sacks  of  flour,  or  put  in 
the  heads  of  barrels.  How 
different  this  is  from  the 
work  of  the  pioneers  ! 

As  a  rule,  each 
town  or  city  is  spe- 
cially interested  in 
one  or  a  few  kinds  of 
business.  For  exam- 
ple, a  town  surrounded  by  extensive  woods  is  liable  to 
have  an  important  lumbering  industry.  Another,  in  the 
midst  of  mountains,  may  make  mining  its  especial  work ; 
or  another,  near  great  wheat-fields,  may  have  immense  flour 
mills. 

Thus  each  town,  like  each  man,  is  apt  to  be  interested 
in  the  production  of  few  things  ;  what  they  raise  or  man- 


FIG.  75. 

The  city  of  Rochester,  in  New  York,  has  grown 
up  near  these  beautiful  falls  on  the  Gen- 
esee  River.  Some  of  the  factories  that  use 
the  water  power  are  seen  in  the  picture. 


86 


HOME  GEOGEAPHY 


ufacture  is  sent  away  in  all  directions,  and  the  other  arti- 
cles, that  the  people  in  the  town  want,  are  brought  to  them 
from  the  many  places  in  which  they  are  produced.  Find 
out  what  is  made  in  your  own  town,  and  some  of  the 
substances  that  are  brought  to  it. 

When  people  are  so  dependent  upon  others  for  most  of 
the  materials  that  they  use,  it  is  clear  that  roadways  be-' 
come  of  great  importance.  For  if  the  best  wheat  for  flour 
is  raised  in  Dakota,  if  the  best  shoes  and  cloth  are  made 
in  New  England,  and  if  the  thousand  other  things  that 
we  must  have  are  produced  in  a  thousand  other  places, 
what  good  will  they  do  us  if  they  cannot  be  brought  to  us  ? 
The  pioneers  had  no  roads  at  first.  When  Lincoln's 
father  moved  to  Indiana,  he  settled  fifteen  miles  north  of 

the  Ohio  River. 
There  was  no 
road  from  his 
place,  and  one 
of  the  hardest 
pieces  of  work  he 
ever  did  was  to 
cut  one  through 
the  dense  for- 
ests. 

One  of  the 
early  customs 
was  to  follow  a 
trail,  or  narrow  path,  and,  instead  of  using  a  wagon,  to 
carry  goods  strapped  upon  one's  own  back,  or  else  upon 
horses  or  mules.  A  number  of  horses  carrying  packs 
formed  a  pack  train  (Fig.  76).  Pack  trains  are  still  com- 
mon in  some  places. 


FIG.  76. 

A  pack  train,  on  a  mountain  road,  carrying  supplies 
to  a  mine  on  the  mountain  side. 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE 


87 


Later,  when  roads  were  more  common,  they  were  often 
rough  and  muddy  ;  and  as  there  were  few  bridges,  streams 
often  had  to  be  waded  or  forded. 

A  great  deal  of  labor  has  been  spent  in  making  good 
roads.  Not  only  must  trees  be  cut  down  and  stumps  and 
stones  be  re- 
moved, but 
steep  places 
must  often  be 
levelled. 
Bridges  are  al- 
so necessary, 
and  much  work 
must  be  done 
to  keep  the 
roads  in  re- 
pair. In  some 
places  where 
there  is  much 

travel,  as  in  eastern  Massachusetts,  great  sums  of  money 
are  spent  in  making  excellent  roads. 

There  is  so  much  carting  in  cities  that  their  streets 
must  be  paved.  Bricks  are  often  used ;  or  stones  larger 
than  bricks  are  laid  down  side  by  side  ;  and  in  many 
cities,  asphalt  pavements  are  common.  What  kind  of 
streets  have  you  seen,  and  how  were  they  built  ? 

We  have  already  (p.  50)  considered  the  importance 
of  rivers  as  roadways.  When  Abraham  Lincoln  was  a 
young  man,  it  was  the  custom  to  carry  goods  from  his 
section  of  the  country  down  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
rivers,  all  the  way  to  New  Orleans.  These  rivers  were, 
in  fact,  the  only  good  roadways  to  that  great  city.  The 


FIG.  77. 

A  long  freight  train,  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway, 
crossing  the  Rocky  Mountains.  There  is  another 
engine  in  the  middle  of  the  train  and  a  third  on  the 
rear  end. 


88 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


goods  were  shipped  upon  flat-boats,  and  Lincoln  himself 
made  two  such  journeys. 

But  railways  are,  in  many  respects,  the  best  roads. 
Even  with  the  finest  of  wagon  roads,  people  and  goods 
cannot  usually  be  carried  more  than  twenty  to  forty  miles 
in  a  day.  Boats  are  somewhat  faster  ;  but  railway  trains 
travel  from  four  hundred  to  a  thousand  miles  per  day, 
and  they  take  both  passengers  and  freight  much  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  be  carried  in  wagons. 


FIG.  78. 
A  view  in  a  freight  depot  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

As  we  ourselves  travel  on  passenger  trains,  we  are  in- 
clined to  think  that  the  chief  business  of  railways  is  to 
carry  people ;  but  this  is  not  generally  the  case.  Their 
main  business  is  to  carry  freight,  such  as  grain,  cattle, 
groceries,  and  machinery  ;  and  by  doing  this  they  have 
had  a  great  influence  upon  the  development  of  the 
country. 

For  example,  a  few  years  ago  it  would  have  done  little 
good  to  raise  sheep,  wheat,  and  fruit  in  the  far  west,  be- 
cause they  could  not  be  sent  to  the  great  cities  to  be  sold ; 
but  as  soon  as  railways  were  built,  these  industries,  and 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE 


89 


many  others,  have  become 
of  great  importance. 
There  is  therefore  much 
more  buying,  selling,  and 
carrying  —  that  is,  much 
more  commerce  —  than  be- 
fore the  railways  were 
built. 

Letters,  newspapers, 
and  express  packages  are 
now  carried  very  rapidly 
on  the  trains.  Formerly  they  were  sent  in  stage  coaches 
or  on  horseback;  but  now  many  passenger  trains  have 
one  or  two  cars  used  for  these  purposes  alone. 


FIG.  79. 
A  freight  yard  with  many  freight  cars. 


FIG.  80. 
A  view  in  New  York  harbor  showing  the  vessels  coming  and  going. 

It  is  clear  that  good  roadways,  whether  made  of  soil, 
water,  or  iron,  are  a  great  help  to  trade.  In  fact,  without 
them  there  could  be  very  little  commerce.  The  wagon 


90  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

roads  in  the  country  and  city  are  of  great  value  in  carry- 
ing goods  for  short  distances  as,  for  instance,  to  the  river 
wharf  or  the  railway  station.  Then  boats  and  trains  are 
used  to  carry  them  further. 

Not  only  is  there  commerce  on  the  land,  but,  as  we  have 
already  seen  (p.  63),  thousands  of  vessels  are  engaged  in 
carrying  freight  on  the  ocean.  They  are  constantly  pass- 
ing up  and  down  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  going 
from  one  city  to  another  (Fig.  80)  with  loads  of  cloth, 
iron,  grain,  lumber,  and  hundreds  of  other  articles. 

Vessels  are  also  going  and  coming  at  all  times  between 
the  United  States  and  foreign  countries,  bringing  materials 
which  we  need  and  taking  back  some  of  our  products. 
This  is  known  as  foreign  commerce. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  do  merchants  do?  (2)  Who  are 
pioneers?  (3)  Describe  the  house  in  which  Abraham  Lincoln  lived 
when  a  boy.  (4)  Mention  some  of  the  different  kinds  of  work  that 
his  father  and  mother  had  to  do.  (5)  Tell  about  the  trips  to  the 
nearest  large  town. 

(6)  How  did  the  work  of  each  man  change  when  the  people  began 
to  live  in  villages?  (7)  Give  some  examples.  (8)  What  would  you 
expect  to  see  in  a  general  store?  (9)  Make  a  list  of  articles  that 
are  manufactured.  (10)  Name  several  industries.  (11)  How  has 
the  work  of  each  man  changed  as  great  numbers  of  them  have  settled 
together  ?  (12)  In  what  ways  have  men  become  dependent  upon  one 
another  ?  Give  examples. 

(13)  Show  that  roads  are  of  great  importance.  (14)  What  kind 
of  roads  did  the  early  pioneers  have  ?  (15)  How  did  they  cross  the 
streams  ?  (16)  Why  must  streets  in  cities  be  paved  ?  (17)  In  what 
respects  are  railways  better  than  other  roads  ?  (18)  Tell  how  rail- 
ways have  helped  to  develop  our  country.  (19)  What  is  meant  by 
commerce?  (20)  By  foreign  commerce  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Make  a  list  of  the  crops  grown  in  your  neigh- 
borhood. How  is  the  work  done  ?  (2)  Do  the  same  for  manufactured 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE  91 

articles.  (3)  Have  you  read  the  life  of  Daniel  Boone,  the  pioneer? 
(4)  What  were  some  of  the  things  Robinson  Crusoe  had  to  do  for  him- 
self? (5)  Write  a  story  describing  an  early  pioneer's  journey  to  the 
nearest  large  town.  (6)  Read  more  about  the  boyhood  of  Abraham 
Lincoln. 

(7)  Visit  a  general  store  in  the  country.  (8)  Visit  a  factory,  a 
blacksmith  shop,  or  a  mill.  Describe  the  visit.  (9)  Make  a  list  of 
articles  that  you  use  which  were  probably  brought  from  a  distance  on 
the  railroad  or  on  water.  (10)  Find  out  where  some  of  them  came 
from.  (11)  What  is  meant  by  a  ford?  The  last  syllable  in  the  name 
of  a  great  many  towns  is  ford,  as  Hartford,  Stamford,  and  Rockford ; 
what  does  that  suggest  to  you?  (12)  Visit  a  street  where  pavement 
is  being  laid.  (13)  Have  improvements  been  made  in  any  river  near 
you? 

(14)  What  freight  goods  have  you  seen  carried  on  the  nearest  rail- 
way? (15)  Visit  a  freight  house  to  see  what  is  inside.  (16)  Find 
out  where  the  boxes,  etc.,  come  from.  (17)  Count  the  number  of 
freight  cars  and  of  passenger  cars  that  run  over  the  railway  during 
one  day.  (18)  Name  as  many  substances  as  you  can  that  come  from 
over  the  ocean.  (19)  Write  a  story  giving  the  history  of  the  mate- 
rial of  your  dress  or  coat.  Of  your  shoes.  (20)  Find  out  some  facts 
about  bananas  as,  for  instance,  where  they  are  grown  and  how  they 
are  brought  to  you.  Do  the  same  for  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  and  other 
articles  of  food. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  110. 


X.  GOVERNMENT 

EVERY  boy  and  girl  has  heard  men  talk  about  voting, 
and  has  noticed  how  interested  they  often  become  as 
election  time  approaches. 

But  do  you  know  what  voting  is  for  ?  Do  you  know 
why  the  day  for  voting  is  called  election  day?  Find  out 
what  you  can  about  voting  and  election. 

Laws  and  officers  are  frequently  mentioned  when  men 
are  talking  about  election.  Can  you  name  some  laws  ; 
and  do  you  know  any  officers  ?  You  have  certainly  seen 
a  policeman  :  what  does  he  do  ?  You  have  heard  of 
judges,  and  of  the  President :  can  you  state  anything 
about  them  ?  Can  you  mention  any  other  officers  ? 

In  our  study  of  commerce  we  saw  that  it  required  a 
long  time  to  reach  our  present  way  of  living  and  carrying 
on  trade.  So  it  is  with  our  government.  At  present  we 
have  many  laws  and  officers,  while  long  ago  there  were 
very  few  of  each.  Let  us  see  why  this  is  so. 

The  farmer  manages  his  farm  nearly  as  he  pleases.  He 
puts  up  fences,  sells  his  grain,  or  feeds  it  to  stock,  as  seems 
to  him  best ;  and  when  repairs  are  needed,  he  looks  after 
them  himself.  The  miller  builds  a  large  or  small  mill, 
uses  old  or  new  machinery,  grinds  much  or  little  corn,  and 
makes  repairs,  as  he  chooses.  In  each  case,  one  man  owns 
and  uses  the  property. 

But  there  are  some  things  that  no  one  man  owns  and 
that  all  wish  to  use.  This  is  .true,  for  instance,  of  roads. 

92 


GOVERN  MEN  T  93 

All  people  drive  or  walk  over  them,  yet  they  belong  to  no 
one  person.  Who,  then,  should  build  roads  in  the  first 
place,  and  who  should  make  necessary  repairs  on  them  ? 

This  was  one  of  the  first  questions  that  the  pioneers  of 
New  England  had  to  answer.  The  best  way  they  saw  of 
doing  it,  was  for  those  who  used  the  roads  in  a  small 
section  to  meet  together  and  decide,  or  vote,  as  to  what 
should  be  done.  That  is,  they  made  rules  or  laws  about 
the  roads;  then  they  elected  men  who  should  make  it  a 
part  of  their  business  to  see  that  the  roads  were  built,  and 
that  repairs  were  made,  according  to  these  laws.  Such 
men  were  known  as  officers. 

Schools  also  are  not  owned  by  one  person,  and  yet  many  wish  to 
use  them.  Large  yards,  good  buildings,  and  good  teachers  are  all  de-. 
sirable;  but  who  should  provide  for  them?  The  pioneers  of  New 
England  settled  this  matter  also  by  voting  and  by  electing  officers  to  see 
that  the  schools  were  properly  managed. 

Many  other  important  matters  were  attended  to  in  much  the  same 
manner.  For  example,  there  are  usually  some  persons  in  every  com- 
munity who  are  liable  to  take  things  that  do  not  belong  to  them,  or 
who  are  noisy  and  quarrelsome.  The  pioneers  passed  laws  in  regard 
to  such  offenders  and  elected  officers,  called  constables,  to  arrest  them 
when  necessary. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  only  matters  which 
could  be  settled  by  a  small  group  of  people  living  near 
together  in  a  village  or  small  town  (Fig.  81).  But  there 
are  some  matters  that  cannot  be  settled  in  this  manner, 
because  other  people,  living  far  away,  are  also  interested 
in  them. 

For  example,  the  managers  of  a  railway  company  may 
charge  too  much  for  passengers  and  freight.  In  such 
cases  laws  may  need  to  be  passed,  compelling  them  to 
charge  reasonable  rates.  But  as  these  railways  are  scores, 


94  HONE  GEOGRAPHY 

or  even  hundreds,  of  miles  long,  the  people  of  a  single 
town  could  do  very  little  with  them.  In  that  case  it 
would  be  necessary  for  those  living  perhaps  hundreds  of 
miles  apart  to  unite  in  some  Avay  in  order  to  make  laws. 

Again,  it  is  important  that  there  be  buildings  in  which  blind  people 
may  be  properly  cared  for,  in  which  the  deaf  and  dumb  may  be  edu- 
cated, and  insane  people  confined.  There  must  also  be  strong  prisons 
where  criminals  may  be  sent.  But  in  any  one  town  there  are  not 
many  such  persons,  and  it  would  prove  very  expensive  to  take  proper 


FIG.  81. 

A  small  New  England  town,  nestled  in  a  valley  among  the  hills,  fields,  and 
forests.    Tell  what  you  see  in  this  picture. 

care  of  only  a  few.     This  is  another  reason  why  a  number  of  people 
should  unite  to  make  laws  on  some  matters. 

We  have  seen  why  there  must  be  a  town  government, 
and  now  we  see  why  there  must  also  be  a  state  government ; 
for  a  state  is  nothing  more  than  a  large  section  of  country 
in  which  all  the  people  unite  to  make  and  enforce  laws. 

All  the  men  of  a  state  cannot  assemble  at  one  point, 
from. a  distance  of  one  or  two  hundred  miles,  in  order  to 
attend  to  such  matters.  Even  if  they  could  make  the 
journey  at  the  time  appointed,  there  would  be  so  many  of 


GOVERNMENT 


95 


them  that  they  could  not  hear  one  another  speak,  and 
little  business  could  be  carried  on. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  necessary  for  one  man  to  be 
elected  to  represent  many  others.  Where  there  are  a 
great  number  of  people,  he  may  represent  many  thou- 
sands. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  there  are  a  million  people  living  in  a 
state  and  that  one  man  is  elected  to  represent  every  ten  thousand ; 
there  will  then  be  one  hundred  such  men  chosen,  and  it  will  be  their 
duty  to  meet  together  to  make  laws  for  the  whole  million. 

Such  men,  being  chosen  to  represent  the  others,  are 
often  called  representatives;  and  because  they  legislate 
(which  means  "  make 
laws "),  they  are  to- 
gether called  the  legis- 
lature. 

In  order  to  meet  to- 
gether, these  men  must 
assemble  in  a  certain 
place,  and  that  place  is 
called  the  capital  (cap- 

FIG.  82. 


The  state  capitol  of  Indiana  at  Indian- 
apolis. 


ital  means  head  city)  of 

the  state.    This  is  a  city, 

often  near  the  centre  of 

the  state,  in  which  there  is  a  fine  building,  called  the  state 

capitol   (Fig.    82),   where   the   representatives  hold  their 

meetings. 

We  saw  that  in  the  town  the  people  not  only  made 
laws,  but  elected  men  to  see  that  they  were  enforced.  Such 
men  are  necessary  for  the  state  also.  The  leading  officer, 
chosen  to  enforce  or  execute  the  laws,  is  .the  governor, 
sometimes  called  the  chief  executive. 


96 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


In  large  cities  (Fig.  83)  there  are  so  many  people  that  they  must 
also  be  governed  by  representatives,  as  the  people  of  the  whole  state 
are  governed.  The  men  who  make  the  laws  are  often  called  alder- 
men and  councillors,  and  the 
highest  officer,  elected  to 
execute  the  laws,  is  known 
as  the  mayor.  The  building 
in  which  these  representa- 
tives meet,  and  in  which 
the  mayor  has  his  office,  is 
the  City  Hall.  While  a  city 
is  governed  by  its  own  offi- 
cers in  some  matters,  it  is 
still  a  part  of  a  state,  and 
elects  representatives  to  the 
state  legislature. 

In  our  country  there 
are  many  states,  and 
there  are  some  matters 
that  no  one  state  can 
decide  alone,  because 
all  the  others  are  equal- 
ly interested  in  them. 
For  instance,  it  would 
be  a  great  hindrance 
to  travel  and  trade  if 
each  state  made  its  own 
money;  for  then  each 
one  might  have  a  dif- 
ferent kind,  with  coins 
of  different  names  and  weights.  Every  time  a  traveller 
passed  from  the  state  of  New  York  to  Pennsylvania,  or 
Massachusetts,  he  might  be  obliged  to  take  the  time  and 
trouble  to  exchange  his  money  for  a  new  kind. 


FIG.  83. 

A  crowded  street  in  the  great  city  of  New 
York.  Notice  the  high  buildings  and  busy 
streets.  Many  officers  are  needed  in  such 
a  city.  Indeed,  there  are  more  police- 
men in  New  York  City  than  there  are 
men,  women,  and  children  in  some  towns. 


GOVERNMENT 


97 


Again,  in  case  of  war  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  much  prog- 
ress if  each  state  acted  independently.  Perhaps  you  can  give  some 
of  the  reasons  why.  Mail  is  another  matter  that  concerns  all  the 
states,  and  there  are  still  others  besides.  Can  you  mention  some? 

So  it  is  evident  that  we  need  a  United  States  Govern- 
ment, as  well  as  state,  city,  and  town  governments.  The 
reason  for  calling  it  the  United  States  Government  is  also 
plain  ;  for  the  states  have  really  united  in  order  to  have 
one  central  government  for  some  of  their  most  important 
affairs. 

If  the  people  of  a  single  state  cannot  meet  in  a  body 
to  make  laws,  certainly  those  of  the  entire  United  States 
cannot  do  so.  Representatives  are 
elected  and  sent,  from  all  the  states 
of  the  Union,  to  one  place  where 
they  consider  the  affairs  of  the 
whole  nation.  The  place  where 
they  meet  is  the  city  of  Washing- 
ton, and  it  is  on  that  account  the 
capital  of  the  United  States.  Here 
is  a  magnificent  capital  building 
(Fig.  85)  in  which  the  meetings 
are  held  ;  and  there  are  many  other 
great  government  buildings  be- 
sides. (See  Fig.  85.) 

The  representatives  from  all  the 
forty-five  states  of  the  Union  form 
what  is  known  as  Congress.  /This  corresponds  to  the  legis- 
lature of  the  states,  the  congressmen  making  laws  for  the 
nation,  as  the  legislators  do  for  the  state.  The  members 
of  Congress  are  called  senators  and  representatives.  The 
executive  officer  of  the  United  States,  corresponding  to 


FIG.  84. 

A  picture  of  George  Wash- 
ington, after  whom  the 
capital  is  named.  Find  out 
what  you  can  about  him. 


98  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

• 

the  mayor  of  a  city  and  the  governor  of  a  state,  is  called 
the  President.  He  lives  in  Washington,  and  his  residence 
is  called  the  Executive  Mansion,  or  the  White  House, 
since  it  is  painted  white  (Fig.  85). 

Besides  these  officers  who  are  elected  by  the  people, 
there  are  a  great  many  others  appointed  by  the  President 
to  carry  on  the  government  work.  Many  live  in  Wash- 
ington, but  some,  as  postmasters,  live  in  other  places. 

We  have  seen  how  the  people  in  small  towns  arrange 
for  their  home  government,  and  how,  uniting  with  those 
in  other  towns,  they  elect  some  men  to  represent  them  at 
the  state  capital  and  others  to  represent  them  at  the 
national  capital.  These  representatives  are  elected  by 
means  of  votes  that  are  cast  for  them. 

Because  the  people  make  their  own  laws,  our  govern- 
ment is  called  a  democracy.  The  first  part  of  this  word 
means  "people,"  and  the  last  part  " government,"  so  that 
the  whole  word  means  "government  by  the  people."  Be- 
cause the  people  do  not  make  all  the  laws  themselves,  but 
allow  their  representatives  to  make  them,  it  is  often  called 
a  representative  government  or  a  republic. 

It  is  often  said  that  our  form  of  government  makes  us 
free  and  equal.  People  are  by  no  means  so  free  and  equal 
in  all  countries.  Under  some  governments,  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  the  people  have  very  little  to  say  about  the  laws 
that  shall  govern  them.  Nor  do  the  laws  protect  them 
all  equally,  for  the  high  officers  say  freely  what  they  think, 
while  others  do  not  dare  to  do  this.  They  must  obey 
their  rulers  blindly,  just  as  little  children  are  expected  to 
obey  their  parents. 

Such  a  government  cannot  be  called  a  democracy  or  a 
republic ;  it  is  indeed  a  despotism,  or  an  absolute  monarchy. 


<B     O 

2   'I- 
h   £5 


a  S 

3  3 


100  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

This  means  that  the  ruler  is  a  despot,  or  a  monarch,  hav- 
ing complete  or  absolute  power  to  do  what  he  chooses. 
For  instance,  he  puts  men  to  death  without  any  trial,  a 
thing  that  the  laws  of  our  country  do  not  allow.  China 
and  Turkey  are  examples  of  this  kind  of  government. 

There  are  other  nations  in  which  the  people  have  more 
freedom  than  this,  but  not  so  much  as  we  have.  They 
are  allowed  freedom  to  do  some  things  which  they  wish, 
while  in  other  matters  they  are  compelled  to  obey,  with- 
out even  asking  any  questions.  Spain  has  a  govern- 
ment of  this  kind.  Since  the  people  have  some  rights  by 
which  the  monarch's  power  is  checked  or  limited,  this 
government  is  called  a  limited  monarchy.  Some  limited 
monarchies,  however,  like  England,  allow  a  very  con- 
siderable freedom. 

KEVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  a  few  things  that  no  one  person 
owns  and  that  all  wish  to  use.  (2)  How  did  the  pioneers  arrange 
for  roads?  (3)  Why  was  a  constable  necessary?  (4)  What  are 
laws?  (5)  Why  must  a  great  many  towns  and  villages  unite  in  order 
to  make  laws?  (6)  Name  some  of  the  objects  for  which  they  must 
unite.  (7)  What  is  a  state?  (8)  How  are  laws  made  in  states? 

(9)  Why   are  the    men    that    are    elected    called    representatives? 

(10)  What  is  a  legislature?     (11)  Where  does  it  meet?    In  what 
building?      (12)   Where  does  the  governor  live?      (13)  Why  must 
large  cities  also  be  governed  by   representatives?     (14)  Name  some 
of  the  city  officers.     Where  do  they  meet? 

(15)  Why  should  not  each  state  make  its  own  money?  (16)  Why 
are  these  states  called  the  United  States?  (17)  Where  do  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  meet?  In  what  building?  (18)  What 
is  Congress?  (19)  What  is  the  White  House?  (20)  What  does  the 
word  democracy  mean  ?  (21)  Why  is  this  government  called  a  repub- 
lic ?  (22)  How  are  people  in  many  other  countries  less  free  and  equal 
than  we  are?  (23)  What  is  a  despotism?  An  absolute  monarchy  ? 
Give  examples.  (24)  What  is  a  limited  monarchy?  Give  an  example. 


GOVERNMENT  101 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  persons  repair  the  roads  or  streets  where 
you  live  ?  (2)  Plow  are  they  chosen  ?  (3)  What  officers  look  after 
the  schools?  (4)  How  is  your  constable  or  policeman  uniformed? 
(5)  Attend  a  trial  to  see  how  it  is  conducted.  (6)  What  are  taxes? 
(7)  In  what  state  do  you  live?  (8)  What  is  the  name  of  your  state 
capital  ?  (9)  How  far  is  it  from  your  home,  and  in  what  direction  ? 
(10)  Who  is  the  governor  of  your  state?  (11)  If  you  live  in  a  city, 
who  is  the  mayor?  Where  is  the  City  Hall?  (12)  Ask  some  friend 
who  has  travelled  in  foreign  countries  if  he  had  much  trouble  with 
the  different  kinds  of  money.  (13)  What  does  U.  S.  stand  for? 
(14)  In  what  direction  is  the  city  of  Washington  from  you,  and  how 
far  is  it  ?  (15)  Who  is  living  in  the  White  House  now  ?  (16)  Where 
are  the  nearest  polls  for  voting?  (17)  Have  some  one  show  you  how 
he  votes.  (18)  What  is  meant  by  the  statement  that  a  "  majority 
rules  "  ? 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  110. 


XI.    MAPS 


Picture  of  a  schoolroom  which  is  32  feet  long 
and  32  feet  wide. 


We  often  wish  to  represent  a  country  upon  a  map  so  as 
to  tell,  at  a  glance,  its  shape,  and  where  the  mountains, 

rivers,  and  cities  are 
located.  Such  a  draw- 
ing can  be  made  of  any 
place,  no  matter  how 
large  or  small  it  is. 

Suppose  we  desired 
to  draw  only  a  school- 
room (Fig.  86),  which 
is  perhaps  32  feet  long 

FlG-  86-  and  32  feet  wide.     It 

would  not  be  easy  to 
find  a  piece  of  paper 
so  large  as  that,  and  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  do  so. 
A  small  piece  would  do,  because  1  inch  upon  it  could  be 
allowed  to  represent  several  feet  in  the  room. 

In  this  case  let  an  inch  stand  for  16  feet.  Since  the  room  is  32 
feet  on  each  side,  and  there  are  two  16s  in  32,  the  drawing  will  be 
just  two  inches  long  and  two  wide.  To  place  the  desks  and  aisles 
properly,  we  will  need  to  use  a  ruler  divided  into  sixteenths,  for  one 
foot  in  the  room  represents  TV  of  an  inch  011  the  ruler. 

The  ends  and  sides  are  marked  (Fig.  87)  north,  east,  south,  and 
west.  The  teacher's  desk  is  3i  feet  in  front  of  the  north  wall.  There 
is  a  row  of  desks  about  4  feet  from  the  west  wall.  The  desks  are 
just  2  feet  long,  with  eight  in  a  row  1^  feet  apart.  There  are  seven 
rows ;  and  the  aisles  between  them  are  each  1£  feet  wide.  Here  is  a 

102 


MAPS 


103 


SIDE 
AISLE 


SICE 
AISLE 


map  of  the  schoolroom 
(Fig.  87).  Measure 
each  part  to  see  if  it  has 
been  drawn  correctly, 
using  a  foot  rule  that 
shows  the  sixteenths 
of  inches.  How  large  is 
the  desk?  The  piano?  WEST 

When  a  person 
draws  in  this  way, 
letting  a  certain 
distance  on  the 
paper  represent  a 
much  greater  ons, 
he  is  said  to  use  a 
scale,  or  to  make  a 
map  according  to  a 
scale.  In  the  school- 
room just  described  (Fig.  87),  the  scale  is  1  inch  to  16  feet. 

In  the  next  drawing,  that  of  the  school  yard  (Fig.  88), 
the  scale  must  be  much  larger,  because  the  yard  is  so 


a  a  a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 
LJ  a  a  aa  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 


02      4      G      8     10     12    14    10 

SCALE  OF  FEET:  1  INCH.  =  16  FEET 

OR  X«OF  AN  INCH  =  I.  FOOT 


FIG.  87. 
A  map  of  the  schoolroom  shown  in  Figure  8G. 


FIG.  88. 
Picture  of  a  school  yard.    Figure  81J  shows  a  map  of  this. 


104 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


much  larger  than  the  room.  Here  one  inch  represents 
140  feet.  According  to  that  scale,  find  out  how  large 
the  yard  and  the  school  building  are  (Fig.  89).  Find 
how  far  the  trees  are  from  each  other,  from  the  nearest 
fence,  and  from  the  building. 

Can  you  not  make  a  map  of  your  own  schoolroom?  What  scale 
will  you  use?  Put  in  your  own  desk,  but  omit  the  others,  if  you 
wish. 

You  might  also  draw  a  map  of  your  school  yard.     If  you  prefer  to 
do  so,  find  its  size  by  stepping  or  pacing  it  off,  making  each  of  your 
NORTH  steps    about    two 

feet  long.  Meas- 
ure the  building 
in  the  same  way. 
After  having  fin- 
ished these  two 

iST 

maps,  draw  a 
third  one,  includ- 
ing in  it  not  only 
the  school  yard, 
but  also  a  few 
of  the  neighbor- 
ing streets  and 


WEST 


0 


70 


105 


140 


Scale  in  feet:  1  inch  equals  in  140  feet. 
FIG.   89. 

A  map  of  the  school  yard  shown  in  the  picture,  Fig. 


houses.  The  scale 
for  this  might  per- 
haps be  1  inch  for 
every  500  steps. 

All  maps  are  drawn  to  a  scale  in  this  way,  whether  they  represent 
a  school  yard,  a  state,  the  United  States,  or  even  something  still  larger. 
Opposite  page  140  you  will  find  a  map  of  North  America.  On  what 
scale  is  it  drawn  ?  Look  at  some  other  maps  to  find  out  the  scale. 

Maps  are  used  a  great  deal  to  show  the  direction  of  one 
place  from  another.  But  a  person  must  first  understand 
what  is  meant  by  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  Probably 
you  already  know  that. 


MAPS 


105 


One  of  the  easiest  ways  to  find  the  direction  is  by  a 
compass  (Fig.  90).  This  is  simply  a  piece  of  steel,  called 
a  needle,  that  swings  about  easily  arid  always  points  to 
the  north.  It  is  magnetized,  like  the  horseshoe  magnets 
that  you  have  seen,  and  it  points  north- 
ward, because  something  draws  it  in  that 
direction ;  but  no  one  knows  certainly 
what  this  "something"  is. 

When  the  stars  are  shining,  one  can 
tell  which  direction  is  north  by  the  help 
of  the  Great  Dipper.  The  two  stars  on 
the  edge  of  the  Dipper  point  toward  the 
North  Star.  It  is  so  bright  that  it  can 
be  easily  picked  out,  and  it  is  always  to  FIG.  90. 

the  north  of  US.  A    compass.       The 

One  can  also  find  direction  by  the  help  ^^  what^o 
of  the  sun ;  for,  as  you  know,  it  rises  in  the  other  letters 
the  east  and  sets  in  the  west.  Accord- 
ingly, when  one  faces  the  rising  sun,  his 
right  side  is  to  the  south  and  his  left  to 
the  north.  Which  direction  is  on  his  right  and  left  when 
he  faces  the  west?  The  south?  The  north? 

Northeast  means  half  way  between  north  and  east.  Southeast 
means  half  way  between  south  and  east.  What,  then,  do  northwest 
and  southwest  mean  ? 

Point  north,  east,  west,  south,  southwest,  northeast,  northwest. 
Walk  a  few  feet  in  each  direction.  What  direction  is  your  desk 
from  that  of  your  teacher  ?  From  the  desks  of  your  friends  ?  From 
the  door?  What  direction  is  your  home  from  the  schoolhouse  ?  From 
other  houses  ?  In  what  directions  do  some  of  the  streets  extend  ? 

Now  let  us  tell  directions  on  the  map.  Lay  your  draw- 
ing of  the  schoolroom  upon  your  desk,  so  that  the  line 


stand  for  ?  Notice 
that  the  needle 
is  pointing  north 
and  south. 


106  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

representing  the  north  side  of  the  room  is  toward  the 
north.  Also  place  yourself  so  that  you  are  facing  di- 
rectly north  as  you  look  at  the  map.  If  your  desk  faces 
the  wrong  way  for  this,  turn  round,  or  put  your  map 
upon  the  floor.  Now,  north  on  the  map  is  also  north  in 
the  room,  and  the  other  directions  on  the  map  correspond 
with  those  in  the  room.  In  which  direction,  on  the  map, 
is  the  door  from  your  desk?  From  the  teacher's  desk? 
Place  your  map  of  the  school  yard  in  the  same  position 
and  give  the  directions. 

You  see  that  the  north  side  of  this  map  is  the  side  fur- 
thest from  you ;  the  east  side  is  on  your  right,  the  south 
next  to  you,  and  the  west  is  on  your  left.  When  a  map 
is  lying  before  us,  we  usually  look  at  it  from  this  position. 

But  it  is  not  always  convenient  to  have  a  map  lying 
down,  especially  in  the  schoolroom,  where  it  must  be  hung 
up  so  that  the  whole  class  may  see  it. 

Let  us  hang  up  one  of  these  maps  and  take  particular 
pains  to  put  it  upon  the  north  wall.  Which  direction  on 
the  map  is  north  now  ?  It  is  evident  that  north  must  be 
up,  while  east  is  on  the  right,  south  is  down,  and  west  is  on 
the  left.  It  could  not  be  otherwise.  These  are  always  the 
directions  on  a  map  when  it  is  hanging,  and  you  should 
drill  yourself  so  that  you  will  never  forget  it. 

Give  the  directions  of  objects  from  one  another  while  the  map  is 
hanging  up.  Put  up  the  map  of  the  school  yard,  and  any  others  that 
you  have,  and  tell  the  directions  from  one  place  to  another.1 

1  After  the  children  are  quite  at  home  in  using  the  map  when  it  is 
hung  on  the  north  wall,  hang  it  on  other  sides  of  the  room  and  have  them 
give  the  directions.  This  is  easy  work  if  properly  graded  ;  but  the  fact 
that  many  children  studying  geography  are  confused  in  regard  to  direc- 
tions on  the  map  suggests  that  caution  be  exercised. 


OCEAN 


FIG.  91. 

To  show  what  maps  mean.  The  left-hand  figures  show  the  country  as  if  you  were 
looking  down  upon  it;  the  right-hand  figures  represent  the  same  country  on 
maps.  Tell  what  you  see  in  each  of  these. 


MAPS  107 

It  is  clear  now  what  a  map  is.  It  is  a  drawing  telling 
something  about  a  country,  just  as  a  letter  may  be  some 
writing  telling  something  about  a  friend.  When  you 
read  such  a  letter,  you  think  about  your  friend,  how  he 
looks,  what  he  has  been  doing,  etc.  So  when  you  look  at 
a  map,  you  should  think  about  the  country,  how  it  looks, 
how  far  apart  the  places  are,  etc. 

There  is  more  than  one  kind  of  map.  On  page  138  there 
is  a  picture  of  North  America.  It  shows  how  that  conti- 
nent might  appear  if  you  looked  down  upon  it  from  some 
point  far  above.  A  picture  like  this,  showing  the  moun- 
tains and  valleys,  is  called  a  relief  map.  That  is,  it  gives 
you  some  idea  of  the  relief  or  height  of  the  land.1 

The  maps  that  you  have  been  drawing  do  not  show  this. 
They  are  flat  maps,  representing  the  country  as  if  it  were 
a  flat  surface.  Opposite  page  140  you  will  find  a  flat 
map  of  North  America.  Compare  it  with  the  relief  map 
on  page  138  to  see  the  difference. 

In  Figure  91  you  will  see  the  way  in  which  flat  maps  are 
made  to  represent  the  land  and  water.  No  attempt  is 
made  on  the  flat  maps  to  show  just  what  the  country 
looks  like,  that  is,  to  represent  its  relief.  They  represent 
the  position  and  direction  of  towns,  rivers,  lakes,  etc.,  just 
as  if  the  country  were  perfectly  flat. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  110. 

1  If  it  seems  desirable,  the  teacher  may  introduce  the  study  of  contour 
maps  at  this  point.  The  children  could  draw  a  contour  map  of  their  own 
neighborhood,  and  then  possibly  make  a  relief  map  from  it  by  cutting  out 
pieces  of  pasteboard  that  correspond  to  the  spaces  between  the  lines. 
Relief  maps  may  also  be  constructed  by  modelling  in  sand. 


REFERENCES  TO  DESCRIPTIONS,  IN  PROSE  AND  POETRY, 
OF  TOPICS  TREATED  IN  HOME  GEOGRAPHY.  FOR 
TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


McM.  means  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York;  Ginn,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass. ;  A.  B.  C.,  The  American  Book  Co.,  New  York ;  S.  B.  C.,  Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co.,  New  York;  Heath,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 


Section  I.  The  Soil.  — King,  "The  Soil"  (McM.,  $0.75);  Tarr, 
"Elementary  Geology,"  Chapters  VI,  XI,  and  pp.  475-487  (McM., 
$1.40);  Shaler,  "First  Book  in  Geology,"  pp.  24-29  (Heath,  $0.60). 
Also  other  geologies.  Nature  Study  Quarterly,  No.  2,  October,  1899 
(Cornell  University,  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca,  N.Y.  Free  on 
application);  Kingsley,  "Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  IV, 
"  The  Transformation  of  a  Grain  of  Soil "  (McM.,  $1.00) ;  Wilson, 
"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools.  Teacher's  Manual,"  p.  177 
(McM.,  $0.90);  Frye,  "Brooks  and  Brook  Basins,"  section  on  "How 
Soil  is  made  and  carried"  (Ginn,  $0.58);  Strong,  "All  the  Year 
Round,"  Part  II,  sections  7  and  8  (Ginn,  $0.30). 

Section  II.  Hills.  —  Whittier,  "Among  the  Hills"  (poem);  Whit- 
tier,  "  The  Hilltop  "  (poem) ;  Hutchinson,  "  The  Story  of  the  Hills  " 
(McM.,  $1.50). 

Section  III.  Mountains.  —  Lubbock,  "The  Beauties  of  Nature," 
Chapters  V  and  VI  (the  former  on  forests)  (McM.,  $1.50)  ;  Jordan, 
"Science  Sketches,"  section  on  "The  Ascent  of  the  Matterhorn" 
(A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  $1.50) ;  Whymper,  "  Chamonix  and 
Mont  Blanc"  (Scribner,  New  York,  $1.20);  Whymper,  "Travels 
amongst  the  Great  Andes  "  (Scribner,  New  York,  $2.50) ;  Tarr,  "  Ele- 
mentary Geology,"  Chapter  XVII  (McM.,  $1.40) ;  Tarr,  "  Elementary 
Physical  Geography,"  Chapter  XIX  (McM.,  $1.40);  Shaler,  "First 
Book  in  Geology,"  Chapter  V  (Heath,  $0.60)  ;  Kingsley,  "Madam  How 
and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  V,  "The  Ice  Plough"  (McM.,  $1.00). 

108 


REFERENCES  109 

Sections  IV  and  V.  Valleys  and  Rivers.  —  Tarr,  "Elementary 
Geology,"  Chapters  Vi-X;  "Elementary  Physical  Geography,"  Chap- 
ters XV  and  XVI  (each,  McM.,  $1.40);  Shaler,  "First  Book  in 
Geology,"  Chapter  VI  (Heath,  $0.60);  Payne,  "Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  sections  on  "Valleys,"  "Plants  of  the  Valleys,"  and  "Animals 
of  the  Valleys"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25);  Kingsley,  "Madam  How  and  Lady 
AVhy,"  Chapter  I,  "The  Glen"  (McM.,  $1.00);  Frye,  "Brooks  and 
Brook  Basins"  (Ginn,  $0.58);  Lubbock,  "The  Beauties  of  Nature," 
Chapters  VII  and  VIII  (McM.,  $1.50).  Poems:  "The  Brook,"  Ten- 
nyson ;  "  The  River,"  Samuel  G.  Goodrich ;  "  The  Mad  River,"  Long- 
fellow ;  "  The  Falls  of  Ladore,"  Southey ;  "  The  Brook  and  the  Wave," 
Longfellow;  "  A  Water  Song,"  E.  G.  W.  Rowe  ;  "  The  Endless  Story," 
A.  K.  Eggleston ;  "  The  Impatient  River,"  E.  G.  W.  Rowe ;  the  last 
three  in  Payne,  "Geographical  Nature  Studies"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25). 

Section  VI.  Ponds  and  Lakes. —  Shaler,  "First  Book  in  Geology," 
pp.  125-129  (Heath,  $0.60) ;  Tarr,  "Elementary  Geology,"  pp.  188-193, 
and  "Elementary  Physical  Geography,"  pp.  298-304  (each,  McM., 
$1.40) ;  Lubbock,  "  The  Beauties  of  Nature,"  Chapter  VIII  (McM., 
$1.50) ;  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature  Studies,"  section  on  "  Pools, 
Ponds,  and  Lakes"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25);  "The  Lakeside,"  poem,  by 
Whittier. 

Section  VII.  The  Ocean.  —  Shaler,  "  Sea  and  Land  "  (Scribner,  New 
York,  $2.50);  Tarr,  "First  Book  of  Physical  Geography,"  Part  III 
(McM.,  $1.10);  Lubbock,  "The  Beauties  of  Nature,"  Chapter  IX 
(McM.,  $1.50);  Andrews,  "Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Chil- 
dren," section  on  "  Sea  Life "  (Ginn,  $0.50) ;  Holland,  "  The  Sea 
Voyage,"  in  "  Arthur  Bonnicastle  " ;  Dickens,  "  David  Copperfield," 
Chapter  V;  "Robinson  Crusoe,"  Chapter  III;  Taylor,  "The  Waves," 
"Wind  and  Sea,"  in  "Nature  Pictures  by  American  Poets"  (McM., 
$1.25)  ;  Coleridge,  "  The  Ancient  Mariner." 

Section  VIII.  The  Air.— Tarr,  "First  Book  of  Physical  Geog- 
raphy," Part  II  (McM.,  $1.10);  "A  Summer  Shower,"  "Cornell 
Nature  Study  Bulletin,"  No.  1,  June,  1899  (free  on  application  to 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.Y.) ;  Murche,  "  Science  Reader,"  Book 
III,  sections  on  "  Air,"  "  Vapor  in  the  Air,"  "  Vapor :  What  becomes 
of  It?"  "What  the  Atmosphere  Is,"  "Ice,  Hail,  and  Snow  "  (McM., 
$0.40);  Frye,  "Brooks  and  Brook  Basins,"  sections  on  "Forms  of 
Water  "  and  "  The  Atmosphere  in  Motion  "  (Ginn,  $0.58) ;  Strong, 


110  JIOME  GEOGRAPHY 

"  All  the  Year  Round,"  Part  IT,  sections  33-39  (Ginn,  $0.30) ;  Andrews, 
"  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Children,"  section  on  "  The  Frost 
Giants"  (Ginn,  .$0.50);  Payne,  "Geographical  Nature  Studies,". 
many  excellent  stories  and  poems  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25) ;  "  Nature  Pic- 
tures by  American  Poets  "  :  "  Summer  Shower,"  Dickinson ;  "  Rain," 
De  Land;  "Song  of  the  Snowflakes,"  Cheney;  "Cloudland,"  Cheney 
(McM.,  $1.25)  ;  Wilson,  "  Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools,"  Sec- 
ond Reader,  the  following  poems :  "  The  Rain  Shower,"  "  The  Wind 
Song,"  "  The  Bag  of  Winds,"  "  The  Sunbeams,"  "  Snowflakes,"  "  Signs 
of  Rain,"  "The  Rainbow"  (McM.,  $0.35);  Lovejoy,  "Nature  in 
Verse,"  the  following  poems :  "  Merry  Rain,"  "  The  Clouds,"  "  The 
Dew,"  "  The  Fog,"  "  The  Rain,"  "  The  Snow,"  "  The  Frost,"  "  Jack 
Frost,"  "  Little  Snowflakes  "  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Shelley,  "  The  Cloud  " ; 
Whittier,  "The  Frost  Spirit";  Bryant,  "The  Hurricane";  Whittier, 
"Snowbound";  Irving,  "The  Thunderstorm"  (prose). 

Section  IX.  Industry  and  Commerce.  —  Payne, "  Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  sections  on  "Occupations,"  "Trade  or  Commerce,"  "Trans- 
portation by  Land,"  "  Transportation  by  Water  "  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25) ; 
Andrews,  "  The  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Children,"  section  on 
"  The  Carrying  Trade  "  (Ginn,  $0.50) ;  Whittier,  "  Songs  of  Labor." 

Section  X.  The  Government.  —  Brooks,  "  Century  Book  for  Young 
Americans  "  (Century  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Brooks,  "  The  Story  of 
the  United  States  "  (The  Lothrop  Publishing  Co.,  Boston,  $1.50)  ;  Wil- 
son, "  Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools,"  Second  Reader,  section  on 
"  Boyhood  of  Lincoln  "  (McM.,  $0.35)  ;  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  section  on  "  Government "  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25). 

Section  XI.  Maps.  —  Excellent  outline  maps  of  states  and  conti- 
nents, costing  1^  to  2  cents  each,  can  be  purchased  from  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  Boston,  Rand,  McNally,  &  Co.,  Chicago,  and  other  publishers. 
Maltby,  "Map  Modeling"  (E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00); 
Kellogg,  "  Geography  by  Map  Drawing "  (same  publishers,  $0.30)  ; 
Redway,  "  The  Reproduction  of  Geographical  Forms "  ($0.30)  and 
"  Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography  "  ($0.65)  (both  by  Heath) ;  Frye, 
"The  Child  and  Nature"  (Ginn,  $0.80);  Frye,  "Sand  and  Clay 
Modeling"  (Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co.,  New  York,  $0.10);  Frye, " Teacher's 
Manual  of  Met/hods  in  Geography  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Kellogg,  "  How  to 
Teach  Clay  Modeling  "  (E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York,  $0.25);  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  First  Book,  Lesson  XIII 
(Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.50). 


PAET   II 
THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 

I.    FORM   AND    SIZE    OF   THE   EARTH1 

Its  Form.  —  Hundreds  of  years  ago,  before  America 
was  discovered,  men  thought  the  earth  was  flat.  They 
travelled  so  little  that  they  had  no  idea  of  its  form  or  of 
its  size. 

A  few  men  who  had  studied  the  matter  believed  that 
the  earth  was  a  round  ball,  arid  that  if  one  travelled 
straight  on  in  any  direction,  he  would  in  time  return  to 
the  place  from  which  he  started.  You  can  understand 
this  by  pushing  your  finger  around  on  the  outside  of  an 
orange,  until  it  comes  back  to  the  starting-point. 

Christopher  Columbus  believed  this,  and  went  to  Spain,  hoping  to 
obtain  money  to  secure  ships  for  a  long  voyage  to  prove  it. 

Men  were  at  that  time  in  the  habit  of  going  to  a  land,  called  India, 
for  spices,  silks,  and  jewels.  To  reach  India  from  Spain  they  travelled 
thousands  of  miles  eastward;  but  Columbus  said  that  if  the  earth 
were  round,  like  a  ball,  India  might  be  reached  by  going  westward 
across  the  ocean,  and  the  distance  would  be  much  less.  He  therefore 
asked  the  king  of  Spain  for  ships  and  men  to  make  such  a  journey. 

The  king  refused  the  request,  because  the  idea  seemed  ridiculous; 
but  the  queen  came  to  his  aid,  and,  at  last,  on  August  3,  1492,  he 

1  The  use  of  a  globe  in  this  study  is  very  important.  Small  globes 
may  be  obtained  from  dealers  in  school  supplies  at  a  very  slight  cost. 

Ill 


112 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


sailed  westward  on  a  voyage  from  which  many  thought  he  would 
never  return  ;  but,  after  a  journey  of  several  weeks,  land  was  reached 
on  October  12th. 

Thinking  he  had  reached  India,  he  called  the  natives  Indians ;  but 
instead  of  that  he  had  discovered  Cuba  and  other  islands  near  the 
coast  of  North  America ;  a  continent  and  large  ocean  still  lay  between 
him  and  India.  These  newly  discovered  lands  became  known  as  the 
New  World,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Old  World,  where  all  white 
men  then  lived. 


FIG.  92. 

Columbus  landing  in  America  and  taking  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the 
king  of  Spain. 

After  Columbus  returned  in  safety,  other  men  dared  to 
explore  the  New  World.  One  of  them,  named  Magellan, 
started  to  sail  round  the  earth  ;  and  though  he  was  killed 
when  he  had  reached  the  Philippine  islands,  his  ships 
went  on  and  completed  the  journey.  Since  then  many 
people  have  made  the  voyage  in  various  directions,  and 
the  earth  has  been  studied  so  carefully  that  every  one 
now  knows  it  is  round. 

The  great,  round  earth  is  also  called  the  globe  or  sphere. 


FORM  AND  SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH 


113 


SOUTH  POLK 


The  reason  that  it  does  not  seem  round  to  us,  is  that  we 
see  so  little  of  it  at  a  time. 

If  you  see  very  little  of  an  orange,  it  will  not  look  round  either. 
To  prove  this,  place  upon  an  orange  a  piece  of  paper  with  a  small  hole  in 
it,  so  that  none  of  the  surface  is  seen 
excepting  that  which  shows  through 
the  hole.  This  part  does  not  appear 
round,  but  flat. 

If  we  could  get  far  enough 

away  from  the   earth  to  see  a 

large  part  of  it  at  once,  as  we 

are  when  looking  at  an  orange, 

or  at  the  moon,  we  would  easily 

be  able  to  observe  its  roundness 

(Fig.  93). 
Size    of    the    Earth.  —  Our 

sphere  is  so  large  that  even  the 

highest  mountains,  when  compared  to  the  whole  earth, 
are  no  larger  than  a  speck  of  dust 
when  compared  to  an  apple.  Lofty 
mountains  are  rarely  more  than  three 
or  four  miles  high ;  but  the  diameter 
of  the  earth,  or  the  distance  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  through  the  centre 
of  the  earth,  is  nearly  eight  thousand 
miles. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth,  or  the  dis- 
tance around  the  outside  of  it,  is  about  twenty- 
^IG-  ^-  five  thousand  miles.    This  is  a  little  more  than 

Figure    of    the    earth       three  times  the  diameter,  and  you  will  find 
cut  in  two,  to  show      that  the  circuniference  of  any  sphere  is  always 
tt    the    diameter,    the 

line  passin°- thro  ugh       a  "»*"  more  than  three  times  its  diameter, 
the  centre  (c).  Prove  this  with  an  orange. 


FIG.  93. 
The  sphere. 


114  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  What  did  people  formerly  know  about 
the  shape  of  the  earth?  (2)  What  is  its  form?  (3)  Tell  the  story 
of  Columbus.  (4)  Why  did  he  call  the  savages  Indians  ?  (5)  Why 
was  the  land  he  discovered  called  the  New  World?  (6)  Tell  about 
Magellan's  voyage.  (7)  Explain  why  the  earth  does  not  appear  to 
us  to  be  a  sphere.  (8)  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  earth?  The  cir- 
cumference ?  (9)  The  latter  is  how  many  times  the  former  ? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Read  something  about  the  life  of  Columbus. 
(2)  Read  about  Magellan.  (3)  Find  the  names  of  some  other  early 
explorers  and  read  about  them.  (4)  Trace  Columbia's  journey  on  a 
globe  to  see  where  he  actually  went.  Find  India  in  order  to  see 
where  he  thought  he  had  gone,  and  notice  how  one  can  go  to  India 
by  travelling  eastward  as  well  as  westward.  (5)  Make  a  sphere  in 
clay.  Measure  its  diameter  with  a  needle.  (6)  How  many  proofs 
can  you  find  that  the  earth  is  round?  Find  out  how  we  know  that 
it  is  like  a  ball  and  not  like  a  cylinder.  (7)  Write  a  story  about 
Columbus.  (8)  Trace  on  a  globe  the  route  followed  by  our  soldiers 
who  went  to  the  Philippines.  Of  Admiral  Dewey  when  he  returned 
by  way  of  the  Mediterranean.  How  many  days  are  required  for  such 
a  journey?  (9)  Obtain  a  telescope  or  an  opera  glass  and  look  through 
it  at  the  moon. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  257. 


II.    DAILY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH,  AND  ITS 
RESULTS 

The  Axis  and  Poles.  —  The  earth  seems  to  us  to  be 
motionless,  while  the  sun  appears  to  move  round  it  each 
day,  rising  in  the  east  and  setting  in 
the  west.  But  in  reality  neither  of 
these  things  happens. 

Instead  of  being  without  motion, 
the  earth  is  whirling  round  with 
tremendous  speed.  You  have  per- 
haps watched  a  wheel  spin  about 
upon  a  rod  or  pin,  and  have  noticed 
that  the  outside  goes  rapidly,  while 
the  part  near  the  pin  moves  much 
more  slowly.  It  is  the  same  with 
the  earth;  and  just  as  we  speak  of 
the  wheel  turning  upon  a  pin,  so  we 
speak  of  the  earth  turning  upon  its 
axis. 

But  the  axis  of  a  wheel  is  something  real,  while  the  axis 
of  the  earth  is  merely  a  line  that  we  think  of  as  reaching 
through  the  earth's  centre  and  extending  to  the  surface 
in  both  directions. 

The  two  ends  of  this  axis  are  called  the  poles  of  the  earth, 
one  end  being  the  north  pole,  the  other  the  south  pole. 

Allowing  an  apple  to  represent  the  earth,  a  knitting  needle  or  a 
stick  pushed  through  its  centre  would  represent  its  axis,  and  the  two 

115 


FIG.  95. 

A  drawing  of  the  earth 
cut  through  to  show 
the  axis  and  poles. 


116 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


North  Polo 


ends  on  the  surface,  the  two  poles.     You  can  then  spin  the  apple, 
very  much  as  the  earth  spins  (Fig.  97). 

If  you  were  to  go  directly  north  from  the  place  where  you  live,  you 
would  in  time  come  to  the  north  pole ;  or,  if  far  enough  south,  to  the 
south  pole.  Many  men  have  tried  to  cross  the  icy  seas  (Fig.  100)  that 
surround  the  north  pole.  If  one  ever  reaches  that  point,  he  will  not 
find  a  pole ;  but  the  north  star,  toward  which  the  axis  points,  will  be 
almost  directly  overhead. 

The  Equator.  —  Midway  between  these  poles,  we  think 
of  another  line  drawn  around  the  earth  on  the  outside. 

This  is  called  the  equator,  be- 
cause all  parts  of  it  are  equally 
distant  from  each  of  the  poles. 
On  page  118  the  distance 
around  the  earth  was  given  ; 
what,  then,  is  the  length  of  the 
equator  ? 

As  the  earth  spins  on  its  axis,  all 
points  on  the  surface  must  go  with 
it,  as  every  part  of  the  skin  of  an 
apple  turns  with  it.  Since  the  earth 
makes  one  complete  turn  each  day,  a 
man  at  the  equator  travels  twenty- 
five  thousand  miles  every  twenty-four 
hours.  What  a  whirling  motion  that 
is !  It  is  at  the  rate  of  over  one  thousand  miles  an  hour,  while  the 
fastest  trains  run  little  more  than  sixty  miles  an  hour. 

Why  do  not  places  considerably  north  or  south  of  the  equator  move 
as  rapidly  as  those  at  the  equator  ? 

Gravity.  —  What,  then,  is  to  hinder  our  flying  away 
from  the  earth,  just  as,  when  a  stone  is  whirled  about  on 
a  string,  it  flies  away  the  moment  the  string  breaks  ?  And 
why  is  not  all  the  water  hurled  from  the  ocean? 


FIG.  96. 

That  half  of  the  sphere  contain- 
ing the  New  World,  to  show 
the  position  of  the  poles  and 
the  equator. 


DAILY  MOTION   OF  THE  EARTH  117 

The  reason  is  that  the  earth  draws  everything  toward 
it.  If  you  push  a  book  from  your  desk,  it  falls  to  the 
floor;  and  when  you  spring  into  the  air,  you  quickly 
return  to  the  ground.  All  objects  are  drawn  downward, 
because  the  earth  is  pulling  upon  them.  It  attracts  them 
much  as  a  horseshoe  magnet  attracts  pieces  of  iron. 

The  force  with  which  the  earth  draws  all  objects  toward 
it  is  called  gravity  ;  arid  it  is  because  of  gravity  that  the 
water,  trees,  houses,  and  we  ourselves,  do  not  fly  off  when 
the  earth  is  turning  at  such  a  tremendous  speed. 

Sunrise  and  Sunset.  —  The  sun  seems  to  rise  in  the  east 
and  set  in  the  west.  This  could  not  be  the  case  if  the 
earth  did  not  turn  or  rotate  toward  the  east ;  for  all 
heavenly  bodies  must  first  appear  in  the  direction  toward 
which  the  earth  turns.  This  eastward  rotation  of  the 
earth,  therefore,  explains  why  the  sun  seems  to  rise  and 
set  as  it  does. 

Hundreds  of  years  ago  people  thought  that  the  sun  actually  rose, 
and,  after  moving  across  the  heavens,  set  in  the  west.  We  still  use 
the  words  "sunrise"  and  "sunset"  which  they  used,  although  we 
know  that  the  sun  appears  to  rise  only  because  the  earth  rotates. 

Day  and  Night.  —  It  is  this  rotation  that  causes  day 
and  night.  A  lamp  can  light  only  one-half  of  a  ball  at 
a  time,  as  you  know.  So  the  sun  can  light  only  half  of 
the  great  earth  ball  at  one  time.  That  being  the  case,  if 
our  globe  stood  perfectly  still,  there  would  always  be  day 
on  the  half  next  to  the  sun,  and  night  on  the  other  half. 

But  since  the  earth  rotates,  the  place  where  it  is  day 
is  constantly  changing  ;  and  while  the  sun  is  setting  for 
people  far  to  the  east  of  us,  it  is  rising  for  those  far  to 
the  west.  When  it  is  noon  where  you  live,  it  is  midnight 
on  the  other  side  of  the  earth.  Thus  each  place  has  its 


118 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


period  of  daylight  and  darkness  ;  and  as  the  earth  makes 
one  complete  rotation  every  twenty-four  hours,  the  day 
and  night  together  must  last  just  that  length  of  time. 


FIG.  97. 

An  apple  lighted  by  a  candle  on  one  side,  to  illustrate  the  cause  of  day 

and  night. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  motion  has  the  earth?  (2)  What 
is  the  axis  of  the  earth?  (3)  The  north  pole?  The  south  pole? 
(4)  Represent  the  axis  and  poles  by  using  an  apple.  (5)  Walk  toward 
the  north  pole.  Toward  the  south  pole.  (6)  What  is  the  equator? 
(7)  How  long  does  it  require  for  the  earth  to  turn  completely  around 
once?  (8)  What  rate  of  travel  is  that,  for  a  point  upon  the  equator? 
(9)  Why  are  we  not  thrown  away  from  the_earth  ?,  (10)  Give  sev- 
eral examples  showing  what  is  meant  by  gravity.  (11)  In  what 
direction  is  the  earth  rotating?  (12)  How  does  that  explain  sunrise 
and  sunset?  (13)  What  causes  night?  (14)  What  would  be  the 
result  if  the  earth  did  not  rotate?  (15)  When  it  is  noon  here,  what 
time  is  it  on  the  other  side  of  the  earth?  (16)  How  long  must  the 
day  and  night  together  last  ?  Why  ? 


DAILY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  119 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Point  out  the  axis  of  a  wheel;  of  a  top;  of  a 
rotating  ball ;  of  a  spinning  globe.  (2)  Mark  the  two  poles  on  an 
apple  or  ball,  and  then  draw  a  line  for  the  equator.  (3)  Mould  a 
sphere  in  clay,  and  show  the  poles  and  the  equator.  Cut  it  in  half, 
and  mark  a  line  for  the  axis.  (4)  Find  exactly  how  many  miles  a 
point  on  the  equator  moves  each  hour.  (5)  Use  a  horseshoe  magnet 
to  attract  pieces  of  iron.  (6)  Use  a  globe,  or  apple,  and  a  lamp  to  show 
why  the  sun  appears  to  rise  and  set,  and  why  it  is  day  on  one  side 
while  it  is  night  on  the  other.  (7)  Watch  the  stars  in  the  east  some 
night,  to  see  which  way  they  appear  to  move.  (8)  Why  do  not  the 
clouds  appear  to  move  westward  also  ?  (9)  Is  the  sun  always  shin- 
ing during  the  day  ?  Why,  then,  do  we  not  always  see  it?  (10)  Who 
was  Atlas?  Who  was  Aurora?  (11)  Find  out  what  the  ancients 
supposed  became  of  the  sun  each  night.  (12)  When  it  is  noon  here, 
what  time  is  it  one-fourth  of  the  distance  around  the  earth  to  the 
east?  To  the  west? 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  258. 


III.    THE   ZONES 


Boundaries  of  the  Zones The  sun's  rays  feel  warmer 

at  noon  than  in  the  early  evening  because  the  sun  is  more 

nearly  overhead  at  noon,  and 
the  rays  then  reach -us  nearly 
vertically. 

For  the  same  reason  the  sun 
seems  hotter  in  summer  than  in 
winter,  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  earth  than  in  others. 

The  hottest  part  of  the  earth 
.  is  near  the  equator,  for  in  that 
region  the  sun  at  midday  is  di- 
rectly over  the  heads  of  the 
people.  That  is  the  case,  for  a 
part  of  the  year,  as  far  north  as 
the  line  on  the  map  (Fig.  98) 
marked  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  as 
far  south  as  the  one  marked 
tropic  of  Capricorn.  Point  to  them  on  Figures  119  and 
120.  These  lines  are  more  than  three  thousand  miles 
apart,  a  distance  greater  than  that  across  the  United  States 
from  Boston  to  San  Francisco ;  and  over  that  vast  area 
the  heat  is  intense,  or  torrid.  Those  who  live  there  wear 
only  the  very  lightest  clothing,  and  the  savages  have 
almost  none  (Fig.  99). 

But  further  north  and  south  the  heat  becomes  less  and 

120 


V  ZOSE 

SOI'TH  POLB. 

FIG.  98. 

A  map  of  the  zones.  The  colors 
suggest  sharp  differences  be- 
tween the  zones  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  boundaries ;  but 
you  should  remember  that  the 
changes  are  very  gradual. 


THE  ZONES 


121 


less  intense,  because  the  rays  of  the  sun,  even  at  noon, 
approach  the  earth  at  a  greater  slant.  There  is  a  region, 
then,  on  each  side  of  this  broad  hot  belt,  where  it  is  neither 
very  hot  nor  very  cold,  but  temperate. 

Finally,  near  the  poles,  the  rays  are  very  slanting,  as 
they  are  in  our  early  morning  or  late  afternoon.  There 
it  is  so  cold,  or  frigid,  that  the  ground  never  thaws  out, 
the  ice  never  entirely  disappears,  and  very  little  vegeta- 
tion can  grow. 

Torrid   Zone.  —  Thus  one  part  of  the  earth  has  a  hot 
climate.     There   the   noonday  sun  is  always  so  directly 
over  the  heads  of  the 
inhabitants  that  they 
never  have  winter. 

This  hot  region  ex- 
tends entirely  around 
the  earth,  like  a  great 
belt,  and  the  equator 
is  in  the  middle  of 
it.  This  is  called  the 
tropical  belt,  or  the 
tropical  or  torrid  zone, 
and  sometimes  the 
equatorial  belt.  Why 
the  latter  name  ? 

Temperate  Zones. 
—  On  the  north  and 
south  sides  of  this 
are  the  two  temperate 
zones.  People  living 


FIG.  99. 

Philippine  savages  hunting;  their  home  is  in 
the  torrid  zone,  and  they  need  almost  no 
clothing. 


in  the  north  temperate  zone  find  the  sun  to  the  south  of 
them  at  noon,  even  in  summer ;  and  their  shadows  always 


122  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

fall  toward  the  north.  But  in  the  south  temperate  zone  the 
midday  sun  is  always  in  the  north.  Which  way  must  the 
shadows  fall  in  that  zone  ? 

Notice  the  position  of  the  sun  at  midday  where  you  live,  and  also 
the  direction  and  length  of  your  shadow  at  that  time.  In  which  of 
the  temperate  zones  do  you  live  ? 


FIG.  100. 

Cape  York  Eskimos,  Greenland,  in  their  summer  dress,  standing  by  their 
sleds  011  the  ice-covered  sea. 

Frigid  Zones.  —  North  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  and 
south  of  the  south  temperate,  are  the  frigid  zones,  where 
the  sun  is  never  high  in  the  heavens,  but  even  at  midday 
is  near  the  horizon.  There  the  shadows  are  very  long,  as 
they  are  with  us  in  the  late  afternoon.  In  consequence, 
while  at  the  equator  there  is  never  any  winter,  near  the 
poles  there  is  never  any  real  summer  weather. 

The  northern  of  these  zones  is  called  the  north  frigid 


THE  ZONES  123 

zone  (Fig.  100)  ;  the  southern,  the  south  frigid  zone.  They 
are  also  known  as  the  polar  zones;  since  they  surround  the 
poles. 

It  is  so  cold  that  no  one  has  ever  been  able  to  reach  either  of  the 
poles.  These  are  surrounded  by  miles  and  miles  of  snow  and  ice,  and 
vessels  hundreds  of  miles  away  from  them  are  in  danger  of  being 
crushed  by  ice,  or  held  by  it  so  that  they  cannot  move. 

Hemispheres.  —  The  half  of  our  sphere  north  of  the  equator  is 
called  the  northern  hemisphere  (or  half  sphere),  the  southern  half,  the 
southern  hemisphere.  The  earth  is  also  divided  into  halves  by  a  circle 
running  north  and  south  through  both  poles,  the  western  half,  con- 
taining the  New  World,  being  called  the  western  hemisphere,  and  the 
eastern  half,  containing  the  Old  World,  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  is  the  cause  for  the  great  heat  in 
the  torrid  zone  ?  (2)  What  are  its  boundaries  ?  (3)  What  other  zones 
are  there  ?  What  are  their  boundaries  ?  (4)  In  which  direction  does 
the  midday  sun  lie  in  each  zone?  (5)  In  which  direction  do  the 
shadows  then  fall?  (6)  Why  should  the  heat  grow  less,  the  farther 
one  travels  from  the  equator?  (7)  Why  has  no  one  ever  been  able  to 
reach  either  pole?  (8)  Which  part  of  the  earth  has  no  cold  weather? 
(9)  Which  part  has  no  hot  weather?  (10)  Point  out  the  zones  in 
Figure  98.  (H)  Represent  them  in  a  drawing  of  your  own. 
(12)  Name  the  hemispheres  and  tell  where  each  is. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Find  out  more  about  the  reason  why  the  sun's 
rays  are  hotter  when  the  sun  is  overhead  than  when  it  is  low  in  the 
heavens.  (2)  Write  a  story  telling  about  the  changes  in  clothing 
you  would  need  to  make  in  passing  from  the  north  to  the  south  pole. 
(3)  In  which  direction  would  you  look  to  see  the  sun  at  noon  on  such 
a  journey?  (4)  How  might  the  changes  in  heat  affect  the  growth  of 
trees  and  other  plants  ?  (5)  How  would  the  direction  of  your  shadow 
change?  Its  length?  (6)  If  there  were  no  watches  or  clocks,  how 
could  you  tell  the  time  of  day  from  the  sun?  (7)  Find  out  about 
some  of  the  men  who  have  tried  to  reach  the  north  pole.  (8)  In 
which  zone  should  you  prefer  to  live  ?  Why?  (9)  Explain  how  some 
places  in  the  temperate  zone  are  warmer  than  some  in  the  torrid 
zone.  For  references,  see  p.  258, 


IV.  HEAT  WITHIN  THE  EARTH,  AND  ITS 
EFFECTS 

Heat  in  Mines.  —  While  much  is  known  about  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  very  little  is  certain  about  its  interior. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  people  cannot  go  far  down 
below  the  surface  in  order  to  see  what  is  there. 


FIG.  101. 

Melted  rock,  from  a  volcano  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  flowing  over  the  face 
of  a  precipice  into  the  water. 

In  some  places  there  are  mines  reaching  fully  a  mile 
below  the  surface.  This  may  seem  a  great  depth ;  but 
when  it  is  remembered  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  go  four 
thousand  times  as  far  to  reach  the  center,  it  is  plain  that 
this  is  really  a  short  distance.  A  mile  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  not  so  much  as  the  thickness  of  the  skin  of 
an  apple,  compared  with  the  thickness  of  the  apple  itself, 

124 


HEAT   WITHIN   THE  EARTH 


125 


In  all  of  these  mines,  and  in  many  deep  wells,  men  find 
solid  rock,  usually  covered  at  the  surface  with  soil ;  but 
no  one  has  ever  gone  beyond  this  rock. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  farther  miners  have 
dug  down  into  the  earth,  the  warmer  they  have  found  it. 
The  thermometer  rises  about  one  degree  for  every  fifty  or 
sixty  feet,  and  some  mines,  as  they  have  been  deepened, 
have  become  so  hot  that  men  could  no  longer  work  in  them. 

Melted  Rock.  —  This  has  led  to  the  belief  that,  if  it  were  possible 
to  go  still  deeper,  the  earth  would  be  found  to  grow  hotter  and 
hotter,  until,  several  miles  below  the  surface,  it  might  be  hot  enough 
to  melt  rocks. 

Another  fact  leading  to  the  same  belief  is  that,  in  some  regions, 
melted  rock,  called  lava,  actually  flows  out  of  the  earth,  and  then 
cools  to  form  solid  rock  (Fig.  101).  In  some  places  so  much  lava  has 
flowed  forth  at  different  times,  and  collected  about  the  opening  called 
the  crater,  that  a  mountain 
peak  has  been  built.  Such 
peaks  are  called  volcanoes 
(Fig.  102),  and  some  of  them 
are  many  thousand  feet  high. 


The  Earth's  Crust.  — 
From  a  study  of  the 
earth  it  seems  certain 
that,  although  the  out- 
side is  now  cold,  it  was 
once  hot,  and  that  the 
mass  within  is  still  hot. 
It  may  be  compared  to  a  biscuit  that  is  still  hot  inside,  al- 
though its  crust  has  become  cool.  In  fact,  this  cold  out- 
side part  of  the  earth  is  generally  called  the  earth's  crust. 

Cause  of  Mountains.  —  It  was  stated  on  page  19  that 
some  parts  of  the  earth  have  been  raised  to  form  mountain 


FIG.  102. 

Vesuvius,  in  Italy,  sending  out  lava,  ashes, 
and  steam  during  an  eruption  some 
years  ago. 


126  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

ranges,  while  others  have  been  lowered  to  form  valleys. 
We  are  now  ready  to  explain  how  this  has  happened. 

You  have,  perhaps,  seen  a  blacksmith  put  a  tire  upon  a 
wheel.  He  heats  the  tire  so  hot  that  it  expands,  and  it  is 
then  easily  placed  over  the  wheel.  But  when  the  iron 
cools  it  shrinks,  so  that  the  tire  then  fits  the  wheel  tightly. 
The  hot  interior  of  the  earth  is  under- 
going a  similar  change,  since  every  year 
it  is  slowly  growing  cooler,  and,  there- 
fore, shrinking  or  contracting.  This  al- 
lows the  cool  crust  to  settle  ;  but,  being 
too  large,  it  wrinkles,  or  puckers,  causing 
the  rocks  to  bend  and  break,  and  form- 
ing great  mountain  ranges  and  valleys. 

One  sees  something  of  the  same  kind  in  an 
apple  that  has  become  dry  and  wrinkled  (Fig. 

103)'     Tt  has  dried  because  Some  of  the  water 
beneath  the  tough  skin  has  gone  into  the  air  as 

vapor ;  thus  the  inside  has  been  made  smaller.    The  skin  of  the  apple, 
like  the  crust  of  the  earth,  has  then  settled  down  and  become  wrinkled. 

Cause  of  Continents  and  Ocean  Basins.  —  The  mountains 
and  valleys  are  riot  the  largest  wrinkles  on  the  earth's 
surface.  As  the  crust  has  settled,  some  portions  have 
been  lowered  several  miles  further  than  others,  and  in 
these  great  depressions  the  waters  have  collected,  forming 
the  oceans,  which  in  places  are  four  or  five  miles  deep. 

Those  great  portions  of  earth's  crust  which  rise  above 
the  ocean  are  called  continents  ;  and  the  highest  mountain 
peak  upon  them  is  fully  eleven  miles  above  the  deepest 
part  of  the  ocean. 

Change  in  the  Level  of  the  Land.  —  The  contracting  of  the  earth 
has  caused  many  changes,  and  is  still  causing  them,  Some  parts  of 


II EAT   WITHIN   THE  EAllTII 


127 


the  land  have  risen  out  of  the  ocean,  and  other  parts  have  sunk 
beneath  it.  Perhaps  the  place  where  you  live,  even  though  it  be 
among  the  mountains,  was  once  below 
the  ocean.  This  can  be  proved,  in 
some  places,  by  finding  certain  shells, 
called  fossils,  in  the  rocks. 

Ages  ago  these  shells  were  parts  of 
animals  living  in  the  ocean  ;  but  on 
the  death  of  their  owners  they  became 
buried  in  the  mud  and  lay  there  for 
centuries  until  the  layers  of  mud  be- 
came slowly  hardened  into  rock.  This 
was  later  lifted  above  the  water,  and 
then  frost,  rain,  and  rivers  wore  the 
upper  layers  away,  bringing  the  fossils 
to  light. 

We  have  already  seen  (page  2)  how  rock  is  changing  to  soil  and 
being  washed  from  the  land  into  the  ocean.  We  now  learn  that  this 
settles  upon  the  ocean  bottom,  hardens  into  rock,  and  then,  perhaps, 
is  lifted  into  the  air.  These  changes  are  very  slow,  but  they  are  going 
on  all  the  time.  Places  once  inhabited  by  men  are  now  beneath  the 
sea,  and  others  where  they  now  live  have  risen  above  it. 


FIG.  104. 

A  rock  containing  many  fossil 
shells. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  What  is  known  about  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth  below  the  surface?  (2)  What  does  that  suggest? 
(3)  What  other  proof  of  this  conclusion  is  there?  (4)  What  is  a 
volcano?  (5)  What  is  the  crust  of  the  earth?  (6)  What  happens  as 
the  interior  cools?  (7)  Compare  this  with  the  drying  of  an  apple. 
(8)  How  have  the  ocean  basins  and  continents  been  formed?  (9)  What 
do  fossils  in  the  rocks  prove  ? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Collect  pictures  of  volcanoes.  Of  earthquakes. 
Read  about  some  volcanic  eruption.  (2)  Make  a  drawing  of  a  vol- 
cano. (3)  Dry  an  apple  and  notice  the  change.  (4)  Not  all  rocks 
contain  fossils;  but  examine  those  in  your  section  to  find  if  they  do. 
(5)  If  you  live  near  a  beach,  notice  how  shells  are  covered  by  the 
sands.  (6)  If  a  mine  were  a  mile  deep,  what  would  be  the  tempera- 
ture at  the  bottom,  if  the  average  temperature  at  the  surface  is  45d. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  258. 


FIG.  105. 

Land  (on  left-hand  side)  and  water  (on  right-hand  side)  hemispheres. 
Hemisphere  means  half  sphere ;  that  is,  half  of  the  earth. 


V.    THE   CONTINENTS   AND   OCEANS 

Land  and  Water.  —  The  greater  part  of  the  land  is  found 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  greater  part  of  the  water 
hi  the  southern.  (Figs.  106  and  112.) 

It  is  possible  to  divide  the  earth 
into  halves,  in  one  of  which  —  the 
land  hemisphere  —  nearly  all  the  land 
is  situated,  while  in  the  other — the 
water  hemisphere  —  there  is  very  little 
land.  From  Fig.  105  you  see  that 
much  more  than  half  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  water. 


FIG.  106. 

The  northern  hemisphere,  show- 
ing the  land  about  the  north 
pole,  Eurasia  in  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  and  America  in 
the  western. 


THE  CONTINENTS 

In  Figure  106,  or,  better,  on 
a  globe,  notice  that  two  great 
masses  of  land  extend  from  the 
north  polar  zone.  One  of  these 

128 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND  OCEANS 


129 


lies  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and  is  the  land  on  which 
we  live ;  the  other  is  in  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

North  America.  —  The  western  land,  which  is  better 
shown  in  Fig.  107,  is  broad  near  the  north  pole,  and  tapers 
down  nearly  to  a  point  iust 

*  f  i  Horth  Pole 

north  of  the  equator,  having 
the  form  of  a  triangle.  What 
is  the  name  of  this  part  ? 

Show  where  New  York,  Washing- 
ton, and  Chicago  should  be  on  this 
map.  (See  the  map,  Fig.  120.)  Point 
also  to  your  home.  Find  some  rivers, 
mountains,  peninsulas,  gulfs,  and  other 
forms  of  land  and  water. 


FIG.  107. 

The  half  of  the  sphere  containing 
the  New  World. 


South  America.  —  South  of 
North  America,  and  connected 
with  it  by  a  long  neck  of  land, 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  lies  the 
continent  of  South  America.  The  two  continents  together 
are  called  the  two  Americas,  forming  the  New  World 
which  Columbus  discovered  (p.  111).  Notice  how  much 
alike  they  are  in  shape ;  draw  triangles  to  show  this. 

Through  what  zones  does  North  America  extend?  (See  Fig.  98, 
p.  120.)  South  America?  Point  to  the  places  where  there  is  snow  all 
the  time ;  to  the  part  where  there  is  never  any  snow.  Where  must 
the  Eskimo  girl,  Agoonack,  one  of  the  Seven  Little  Sisters,  have 
lived  ?  Read  about  the  Eskimos  on  p.  192. 

Tell  how  the  climate  would  change  if  you  were  to  travel  from  the 
northern  end  of  North  America  to  the  southern  end  of  South  America. 
What  changes  would  you  expect  to  find  in  the  plants?  In  the  cloth- 
ing of  people  ?  Write  a  story  about  such  a  journey. 

On  the  next  page  are  pictures  of  some  of  the  wild  animals  of  South 
America  (Fig.  108).  What  wild  animals  live  in  North  America? 
Collect  pictures  of  them.  Have  you  ever  seen  any  of  them? 


FIG.  108. 
Some  of  the  animals  of  South  America. 


A  hemisphere  showing  a  part  of 
Eurasia  and  Africa. 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 

Eurasia.  —  East  of  us,  across 

the  Atlantic  Ocean,  is  the  Old 

World    (Figs.    109    and    113). 

More  land  is  found  there  than  in 

the  New  World,  and  the  largest 

mass  of  it  is  called  Eurasia. 
The  northern  part  of  Eurasia 

is  in  the  North  Frigid  zone,  on 

the  opposite  side  of  the  north  pole 

from  North  America  (Fig.  106), 

and  extends  a  great  distance  east 

and    west.      Find   for   yourself 

how  far  south  it  reaches,  and  through  what  zones  it  passes. 
Long  ago,  before  Columbus  made  his  voyage  to  the  New 

World,  all  the 
civilized  people 
lived  in  Europe, 
the  western  part 
of  that  great 
continent. 

The  homes  of 
Jeannette  and  Lou- 
ise, two  of  the  Seven 
Little  Sisters,  were 
in  that  country.  If 
you  have  read  the 
story,  can  you  not 
tell  some  things 
about  each  of  them? 

The     eastern 
Fl«-  no.  part  of  the  con- 

The  home  of  Jeannette,  among  the  Swiss  mountains,    tinent    is   Called 
Find  other  pictures  of  these  mountains  on  pages  18 
and  23.  Asia. 


132  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Read  in  the  "  Seven  Little  Sisters  "  about  Gemila,  the  child  of  the 
desert,  and  of  Pen-se,  the  Chinese  girl,  whose  homes  were  in  Asia. 

Europe  is  usually  considered  one  continent  and  Asia  an- 
other, although,  as  you  can  see  from  the  maps,  especially 
Fig.  105,  they  are  not  so  clearly  separated  as  the  other 
continents  are.  For  this  reason  Europe  and  Asia  are 
often  called  one  continent,  Eurasia,  the  name  being  made 
up  of  "Eur,"  from  Europe,  and  "Asia." 

Point  toward  this  continent.  Walk  toward  it.  Which  is  probably 
its  warmest  part? 


FIG.  111. 
The  tiger,  one  of  the  wild  animals  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

Africa.  —  South  of  Europe  is  the  continent  of  Africa. 

Here  lived  the  little  dark  girl,  Manenko,  one  of  the  Seven  Sisters, 
and  this  is  the  place  the  negroes  came  from. 

In  what  zones  does  Africa  lie  ?  How  does  it  compare 
with  South  America  in  temperature  ?  In  shape  ?  In  what 
direction  would  you  start  in  order  to  go  directly  to  Africa? 

Australia.  —  South  of  Asia  are  many  large  islands  called 
the  East  India  Islands  (Fig.  119).  Find  the  zone  in  which 
they  lie.  Southeast  of  these  is  a  large  island  known  as  the 
continent  of  Australia  (Fig.  119).  In  what  zones  is  it? 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


133 


THE  OCEANS 

The  Arctic  and  Antarctic.  —  There  seems  to  be  a  great 
deal  of  land  ;  but,  as  we  have  learned  (p.  63),  three- 
fourths  of  the  earth  is  covered  by  ocean  water.  The 
water  around  the  north  pole  (Fig.  106)  is  called  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Find  it  on  a  globe. 

There  are  many  islands  in  this 
ocean,  and  the  water  between  them  is 
covered  with  ice.  The  climate  is  so 
cold  that  there  are  very  few  people, 
and  no  crops  of  any  kind  can  be  raised. 
Here  the  Eskimos  live,  hunting  the 
polar  bear,  seal,  and  walrus  to  obtain 
meat  for  food,  fur  for  clothing,  and 
oil  for  fuel  and  light  (see  p.  192). 


FIG,  112. 


The  southern  hemisphere,  show- 
ing the  water  surrounding  the 
south  pole.  Notice  that  the 
Antarctic  is  not  separated  by 
land  from  the  other  oceans. 


Much  less  is  known  about 
the  Antarctic  Ocean  (Fig.  112), 
which  surrounds  the  south  pole, 
and  on  which  there  is  also  a 
great  deal  of  floating  ice. 

The  Atlantic.  — •  Extending  from  the  Arctic  to  the  An- 
tarctic is  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  hav- 
in£  the  Old  World  on  the  east 
and  the  New  World  on  the  west. 
This  is  the  water  that  we  cross 
in  going  to  Europe,  and  many  of 
the  things  we  eat  and  wear  are 
brought  across  it.  Can  you  name 
some  of  them  ?  Find  what  con- 
u  tinents  the  Atlantic  bathes. 

TIGRIS  The  Pacific.  —  The  water  west 

The  Atlantic  Ocean.  of  North  America  is  called  the 


134 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


NORTH  POT.F, 


SOUTH    POLE 

FIG.  114. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean. 


NORTH  POLE 


Pacific  Ocean,  which  is  the  larg- 
est of  all  oceans,  covering  more 
than  one-third  of  the  earth's 
surface.  What  continents  does 
it  bathe  ?  Walk  toward  it. 

The  Indian.  — There  is  still  an- 
other great  body  of  water  called 
the  Indian  Ocean  (Fig.  109).  It 
lies  south  of  India  in  Asia,  and 
between  Africa  on  one  side  and 
Australia  and  the  East  Indies  on 
the  other. 

The  Ocean  Bottom.  -  -  The 
depth  of  the  ocean  water  varies 
considerably ;  on  the  average  it 
is  a  little  over  two  miles,  but  in 
some  places  it  is  more  than  four 
miles  deep.  In  this  immense 
body  of  water  are  millions  of 
animals,  some  of  them,  as  the 
whale,  shark,  codfish,  and  seal, 
being  of  use  to  man. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean  is 
mainly  a  great  plain,  where  it 
is  as  dark  as  our  darkest  night,  because  the  sunlight 

cannot  pass 
through  so 
much  water. 
In  conse- 
quence, the 
FIG.  lie.  fish  living 

One  of  the  deep-sea  fish.  there        have 


SOUTH   1'Ol.E 


FIG.  115. 

A  part  of  the  glohe.    What  con- 
tinents and  oceans  are  shown  ? 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


135 


little  use  for  eyes,  and  some  that  have  been  brought  to  the 
surface  have  none. 

The  inud  which  covers  the  bottom  is  in  many  places 
made  up  of  the  shells  of  tiny  animals,  many  of  them  even 
smaller  than  a  pinhead.  Some  of  the  chalk  used  in 
schools  was  just  such  mud  before  it  was  raised  to  form 
rock  layers  on  the  dry  land. 

Mountains  in  the  Oceans.  —  While  most  of  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  is  a  plain,  some  parts  are  not  so  level.  Here 
and  there  are  mountain  peaks,  and  chains  of  islands, 
extending  above  the  sea  far  away  from  the  continents. 
Many  of  these  are  portions  of  mountain  chains  rising 
above  the  water,  having  been 
lifted  to  such  a  height  by 
the  wrinkling  of  the  earth's 
crust  through  contraction  ;  but 
many,  like  the  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands, are  volcanoes  which  have 
been  built  up  by  lava  flowing 
from  the  interior  of  the  earth 
(see  pp.  124  and  125). 

Coral  Islands.  —  In  the  open 
ocean  there  is  another  inter- 
esting kind  of  island  known  as  the  coral  island  (Fig.  118). 
Some  very  tiny  creatures,  called  coral  polyps,  build  hard, 
limy  coral,  such  as  you  have  no  doubt  seen.  Where  the 
ocean  water  is  warm,  as  in  the  torrid  zone,  these  little 
animals  live  in  immense  numbers.  Millions  of  them  may 
be  found  around  a  single  island,  and  every  one  is  busy 
building  its  tiny  skeleton  of  lime. 

Each  polyp  resembles  a  fully  blossomed  flower;  and 
they  vary  greatly  in  color,  being  white,  pink,  purple,  red, 


FIG.  117. 

A  piece  of  coral,  with  the  polyps 
projecting  from  the  hard  coral 
like  a  hunch  of  flowers. 


136 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


yellow,  brown,  and  many  other  col- 
ors. It  is  a  truly  beautiful  sight  to 
see  them  spread  out  in  the  water, 
looking  like  a  flower  garden  in  the 
sea  (Fig.  117). 

When  these  coral  animals  die, 
the  hard  coral  part  remains.  Then 
other  polyps  build  upon  these  skele- 
tons, and  this  is  continued  until 
the  surface  of  the  water  is  reached 
and  coral  islands  are  formed. 


FIG.  118. 

A  ring-like  coral  island, 
called  an  atoll,  in  the 
open  ocean. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  the  five  continents,  counting 
Eurasia  as  one.  (2)  Write  their  names.  (3)  Walk  toward  each  of 
them.  (4)  Tell  what  you  can  about  each.  (5)  Where  is  the  Arctic 
Ocean  ?  The  Antarctic  ?  (6)  Tell  something  about  the  people  and 
animals  of  the  Arctic  region.  (7)  What  oceans  touch  North  Amer- 
ica? (8)  Name  five  oceans.  Which  is  the  largest?  (9)  How  deep 
is  the  ocean  water?  (10)  Name  some  of  the  animals  that  live  in  it. 
(11)  What  are  the  conditions  on  the  ocean  bottom?  (12)  In  what 
ways  are  islands  in  the  open  ocean  formed?  (13)  Explain  how  coral 
islands  are  made. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Make  an  outline  drawing  of  each  of  the  con- 
tinents. (2)  Of  each  of  the  oceans.  (3)  Collect  pictures  of  the 
animals,  people,  and  scenery  of  the  different  continents.  Many  such 
pictures  are  printed  in  the  magazines.  (4)  Write  a  story  about  one 
of  the  pictures.  (5)  Write  a  story  about  something  that  you  have 
learned  concerning  one  of  the  continents.  (6)  Obtain  pieces  of  coral 
for  the  school  collection.  (7)  Study  the  maps,  Figs.  119  and  120,  to 
learn  more  about  the  continents  and  oceans. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  258. 


North  Pole     °s> 


VI.    MAPS 

THE  maps  that  have  been  thus  far  used  are  all  hemi- 
spheres, and  represent  the  earth  as  it  would  appear  if 
we  looked  down  upon  it  from  above.  Such  maps  are 
especially  desirable  because  they  call  attention  to  the 
roundness  of  the  earth ;  but  they  are  so  difficult  to  make 
that  it  is  customary  to  represent  the  earth  on  flat  maps 
instead. 

In  Figure  119  you  can  see  the  difference  between  the 
two.  While  the  lower  ones  show  the  roundness  of  the 
earth,  the  upper  two  represent  it  as  quite  flat.  Although 
they  are  unlike,  the  latter  show  the  position  of  the  land 
and  the  water  quite  as  plainly  as  the  former.  Since  this 
is  true,  and  since  it  is  much  easier  to  make  the  flat  maps, 
these  will  be  the  ones  chiefly  used  hereafter  in  this  book. 
But  in  studying  flat  maps  one  should  always  remember 
to  think  of  the  earth  as  round,  and  not  as  a  flat  surface.1 
Examine  Figure  120  also.2 

1  The  teacher  should  see  that  this  is  done  by  frequent  use  of  a  globe. 
It  is  advisable  to  have  one  large  globe  and  several  small  ones,  so  that  each 
pupil  may  have  one  for  frequent  use. 

2  These  maps  (Figs.  119  and   120)  should  be  carefully  studied,  the 
pupil  following  map  questions  given  by  the  teacher  to  cover  form,  loca- 
tion, etc.,  of  continents,  oceans,  and  important  places. 

137 


FIG.  121. 
Relief  map  of  North  America. 


VII.    NORTH   AMERICA 

Physical  Geography.  —  Here  is  a  relief  map  of  the  con- 
tinent on  which  we  live.  What  great  highland  do  you 
find  in  the  west?  In  the  east?  In  what  direction  does 
each  extend  ?  One  is  much  broader  and  higher  than  the 
other;  which  is  it?  Where  is  the  lowest  land  between 

138 


NORTH  AMERICA         '  139 

these  two  highlands  ?  Trace  the  Mississippi  River.  Name 
some  of  its  largest  tributaries.  (You  will  find  these 
names  on  the  map,  Fig.  123.)  Find  the  Rio  Grande  River 
in  the  south ;  the  St.  Lawrence  River  in  the  northeast ; 
the  Mackenzie  and  the  Yukon  in  the  northwest. 

What  two  great  rivers  flow  westward  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?  Notice  the  slope  east  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains.  Is  it  longer  or  shorter  than 
that  west  of  the  Rockies  ?  What,  then,  are  the  main 
slopes  in  North  America? 

Upon  which  of  these  slopes  do  you  live?  Point  as 
nearly  as  you  can  to  the  place  where  your  home  is.  Show 
where  your,  nearest  large  river  should  be,  even  if  it  is  not 
represented  on  this  map. 

Find  New  York  and  San  Francisco  on  Figure  123.  If  you  were  to 
go  westward  from  the  former  to  the  latter,  you  would  travel  over 
many  hills,  valleys,  and  mountains.  Some  of  the  slopes  would  be 


F  E 


FIG.  122. 

Section  across  United  States,  from  east  to  west,  to  show  mountains,  plains, 
and  principal  slopes. 

short  and  gentle ;  others  would  be  very  long,  and  sometimes  gentle, 
sometimes  steep.  Here  is  a  drawing  showing  the  chief  slopes  you 
would  cross  in  making  that  journey.  Point  on  the  map  to  the  slopes 
A,B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  of  the  drawing.  Draw  a  section  like  this. 

Political  Divisions.  —  You  will  remember  that  Spain 
was  the  nation  that  helped  Columbus  make  his  discovery 
of  America.  The  Spaniards  afterward  settled  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  continent,  and  introduced  the  Span- 


140  -THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

ish  language  there.  That  is  still  the  .chief  language 
spoken  in  Mexico,  in  the  southern  part  of  North  America. 
Mexico  used  to  belong  to  Spain,  but  became  independent 
many  years  ago.  f 

After  Columbus  had  proved  that  there  was  land  to  the 
west  of  Spain,  other  nations  sent  explorers  and  made 
settlements.  Among  these  were  the  English,  who  settled 
chiefly  along  the  Atlantic  coast^and  finally  came  to  own 
the  great'er  part  of  the  continent  north  of  Mexico. 

In  time  the  English  wTho  lived  in  the  centraUportion  of 
eastern  North  America,  waged*  wa'p^gainst  England,  and 
chose  George  Washington  as  their  leader.  Oiithe  4th  of 
July,  1776,  they  declared  their  independence  <£|  England, 
and  finally  won  it  completely.  This  part  became  known 
as  the  United  States;  but  the  region  to  the  north,  which 
England  was  able  to  keep,  and  which  she  still  possesses,  is 
called  Canada.  Find  each  of  these  countries  on  the  map 
(Fig.  123).  Point  toward  Cajiada  and  Mexico.  Walk 
toward  each. 

Besides  these  three  large  nations,  several  Smaller  ones 
occupy  that  part  of  the  continent,  s<mth  of  Mexico,  which 
is  called  Central  America.  . 

Of  course  there  must  be  some  place  where  one  country  ends  and 
another  begins.  Such  a  place  is  called  a  boundary,  and  the  boundary 
lines  between  the  different  nations  are  shown  on  this  map  by  heavy 
lines.  .  Point  them  out. 

In  some  parts  you  see  that  a  natural  boundary  has  been  chosen, 
such  as  a  river  or  a  chain  of  lakes;  but  it  is  often  only  a  straight  line, 
cutting  across  rivers,  lakes  and  mountains.  Examine  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States  to  determine  how  much  of  it  is  natural. 

Where  the  boundary  is  only  a  straight  line,  it  is  marked  by  a  row 
of  posts  or  stone  pillars  a  few  rods  apart,  and  if  you  were  to  cross 
from  one  country  to  another  you  could  easily  see  them, 


Comparative  Area 
PEXN. 

45,215  Square  Miles. 


3r^xS^..«!t?i 


sr^feX5 


VIII.    THE   UNITED   STATES 

]\IAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  waters  border  the  United  States? 
(2)  What  countries?  (3)  What  is  the  greatest  distance  across  the 
United  States,  east  and  west  ?  (Notice  the  scale  of  miles  on  the  map). 
North  and  south?  (4)  Where  are  the  main  divides?  (5)  Do  you  see 
any  part  that  has  very  few  streams  ?  What  does  that  suggest  to.  you  ? 
(6)  Find  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Washington, 
Chicago,  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  Denver,  and  San  Francisco,  and  tell 
where  each  is. 

When  our  war  for  independence  began  there  were  thir- 
teen large  settlements,  called  colonies,  which  at  the  close 
of  the  war  became  known  as  states.  Our  flag  still  has  its 
thirteen  red  and  white  stripes  to  remind  us  of  them. 

There  were  at  first  only  thirteen  stars  in  the  blue  field  of  the  flag; 
but  one  has  been  added  for  each  new  state  until  now  there  are  many 
more.  Count  the  stars  on  a  flag  to  see  how  many  states  there  are. 

For  a  long  time  after  the  war  for  independence,  the  in- 
terior and  western  parts  of  what  is  now  the  United  States 
formed  an  unknown  wilderness  belonging  to  other  nations, 
and  inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians.  The  United  States  has 
obtained  part  of  this  land  by  war,  and  part  of  it  by  pur- 
chase, so  that  the  country  is  now  several  times  as  large  as 
it  was  at  first.  Many  large  states  have  been  added ;  but 
there  are  still  some  parts,  called  territories,  which  have 
not  yet  been  made  into  states. 

In  order  that  they  may  be  more  easily  studied,  the 
states  are  usually  Divided  into  groups.  Let  us  take  first 
the  northeastern  group  called  the  New  England  States; 
and  afterwards,  others. 

141 


IX.    NEW   ENGLAND 


MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  the  six  states  included  in  New  Eng- 
land. (2)  Which  is  largest?  (3)  Which  smallest?  (4)  Which  has 
noseacoast?  (5)  What  mountains  are  found  in  these  states?  What 
rivers?  (6)  Remembering  what  was  said  on  pp.  66  and  90,  where 
would  you  expect  to  find  the  largest  cities  ?  (7)  What  is  the  capital 
of  each  state?  (8)  Point  to  Cambridge  in  Massachusetts,  where  Long- 
fellow lived.  (9)  To  Boston.  Walk  toward  Boston.  (10)  In  what 
direction  would  one  sail  from  there  to  reach  England?  (See  Fig.  119.) 


FIG.  126. 

A  view  of  Boston,  the  largest  city  in  New  England,  showing  its  harbor  and 
some  of  the  ships  in  it. 

Names.  —  The  settlers  who  came  to  this  part  of  North 
America  called  it  New  England.  Several  names  on  the 
map  also  commence  with  New,  as  New  Hampshire  and 
New  Haven.  Find  others.  What  reason  can  you  give 
for  their  using  that  word  so  often  ?  j 

Seaports.  —  If  you  examine  the  map  you  will  notice  that 
the  coast  is  very  irregular,  with  many  small  bays,  promon- 

142 


NEW  ENGLAND  STATES 

100 


NEW  ENGLAND 


148 


tories,  and  fine  harbors.     Draw  the  coast   line   showing 
some  of  these. 

The  excellent  harbors  have  determined  the  places  where 
great  cities  should  grow  up.     The  largest  of  all  is  BOSTON, 
and  two  others  are  PORTLAND  and  PROVIDENCE.     Point 
them  out.   What  direc-     ._  _____  m  ______  _      ._     .  .......  .  , 

tion  is  each  from  the 
others,  and  in  what 
state  is  each? 

Fishing.  —  Some  of  the 
towns  are  located  on  the 
coast  because  the  men  who 
live  in  them  are  fishermen, 
and  must  have  their  homes 
near  the  water.  In  the  early 
days,  cod,  mackerel,  and 
halibut  were  easily  caught 
near  the  shore  ;  but  now  it 
is  often  necessary  to  sail  far 
from  land,  the  men  being 
gone  perhaps  for  weeks  be- 
fore filling  their  vessels 
(Fig.  67,  p.  73)  with  fish. 

PORTLAND,  BOSTON,  and  GLOUCESTER  l  are  important  fish  markets, 
the  latter  being  the  largest  fishing  port  in  the  country.  Fish  are  sent  from 
there  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  even  to  foreign  countries. 

Farming.  —  A  fine  harbor  by  itself  cannot  make  a  great 
city.  As  you  remember  (p.  59),  this  is  important  simply 
because  it  renders  the  loading  and  unloading  of  vessels 
both  easy  and  safe.  But  unless  there  were  many  people 
supplying  and  needing  materials,  there  would  be  little 
need  of  using  these  harbors. 

1  Whenever  a  city,  river,  etc.,  is  mentioned  in  the  text,  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  locate  it  on  the  map,  giving  state  and  position. 


FIG.  127. 

Fishermen  hoisting  halibut  from  a  fishing 
vessel  at  Gloucester.  Notice  that  these 
fish  are  as  large  as  a  man. 


144  THE  EASTS  AS  A    WHOLE 

Let  us  see,  then,  if  there  are  many  people  living  farther 
inland  and  what  they  do. 

One  might  expect  that  there  would  be  much  farming 
there  ;  but  there  are  so  many  hills  and  mountains,  and  the 
soil  is  often  so  thin  and  stony,  that  the  farms  are  usually 
small,  supplying  only  vegetables,  milk,  butter,  and  other 
products  to  be  used  in  the  cities  near  by.  Some  of  them, 
far  from  the  cities,  have  been  abandoned  because  the  land 
is  so  hilly  and  the  soil  so  poor. 


FIG.  128. 
Lumbermen  engaged  in  floating  logs  down-stream  from  the  forest. 

Quarrying. — But  while  the  rocky  hills  and  mountains  hinder  farm- 
ing, they  often  furnish  excellent  granite,  which  is  used  for  buildings 
and  street  pavements.  White  marble,  used  in  monuments,  is  also 
found  among  the  mountains  near  RUTLAND,  Vermont ;  and  slate,  for 
roofs  of  houses,  and  for  writing  slates,  is  obtained  both  in  Vermont 
and  Maine. 

Lumbering.  —  Since  many  of  the  hills  and  mountains 
are  still  covered  with  forests,  much  lumber  is  obtained 
from  them,  especially  from  the  mountainous  part  of  north- 
ern Maine.  As  you  can  see  from  the  map  (Fig.  125), 


NEW  ENGLAND 


145 


there  are  very  few  towns  in  this  section,  most  of  the 
country  being  wooded. 

During  spring  freshets,  when  the  winter  snows  are  melt- 
ing, the  logs  are  floated  down-stream,  often  to  a  place  where 
ocean  steamers 
can  reach  them. 
Here  they  are 
sawed  into  lum- 
ber and  loaded 
upon  vessels  to 
be  carried  in  all 
directions.  BAN- 
GOR,  on  the  Pe- 
nobscot  River, 
has  become  a 
large  city,  chief - 

,  .,  FIG.  129. 

ly  because  of  its 

lumber  industry.     Other  towns  on  the  Kennebec  and  the 

Androscoggin  rivers  have  grown  in  the  same  way. 


LUMBER  DISTRICTS 

OF  THE 

UMTED  STATES. 

CD  Most  Important  Districts. 
CH  Less  Important  Districts. 


FIG.  1130. 

Lumber  ships  loading  boards  from  the  great  piles  that  can  be  seen  on  the 
wharf.  Here  are  also  many  logs  ready  to  go  to  the  saw-mill  to  be  made 
into  boards. 


146  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Manufacturing.  —  But  we  have  not  yet  come  to  the  most 
important  occupation  of  the  New  England  people.  The 
short  rivers,  having  their  sources  in  the  uplands,  flow  with 
swift  course  to  the  sea,  and  are  often  interrupted  by  rapids 
and  falls.  In  one  way  this  is  a  disadvantage,  because 
vessels  cannot  go  far  up-stream ;  but  in  another  way  it  is 
a  great  advantage.  Can  you  see  how  ? 

On  page  50  you  learned  that  streams  with  swift  cur- 
rents and  waterfalls  furnish  the  best  water-power.  Where 
such  power  is  abundant,  wheels  can  be  turned  and  great 
factories  be  run.  This  makes  it  clear  why  the  chief  in- 


FTG.  131. 
Great  cotton-mills  on  the  Merrimac  River  at  Manchester,  New  Hampshire. 

dustry  of  New  England  is  manufacturing.  In  fact,  the 
New  England  states  are  among  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing states  in  the  Union. 

The  principal  rivers  that  furnish  water-power  are  the 
Merrimac,  Connecticut,  and  the  three  in  Maine  already 
mentioned  (p.  145).  Find  each  of  these,  and  trace  its 
course  from  source  to  mouth.  Make  a  drawing  to  rep- 
resent each  one,  and  locate  upon  it  some  of  the  large 
cities. 

There  is  so  much  manufacturing  in  New  England,  by 
the  use  of  water-power  and  steam,  that  shiploads  of  cotton 


NSW  ENGLAND  147 

are  sent  there  to  be  made  into  cloth  at  such  cities  as  MAN- 
CHESTER (Fig.  131),  LOWELL,  NEW  BEDFORD,  and  FALL 
RIVER.  Great  quantities  of  wool  are  brought  to  be  made 
into  woollen  goods  at  LAWRENCE  and  PROVIDENCE,  which 
also  manufacture  cotton  goods ;  and  thousands  of  hides  of 
cattle  and  other  animals  to  be  made  into  boots,  shoes,  gloves, 
and  leather  of  all  kinds  at  LYNN  and  other  cities.  Iron 
and  other  metals  are  also  brought  to  be  made  into  knives, 
needles,  watches,  firearms,  machines,  and  hundreds  of 
other  articles  at  WORCESTER,  BRIDGEPORT,  SPRINGFIELD, 
NEW  HAVEN,  and  HARTFORD.  In  Boston  itself  there  is 
also  a  vast  amount  of  manufacturing  of  different  kinds. 

Find  each  of  these  cities ;  tell  in  what  state  it  is  and  upon  what 
river,  if  the  name  is  given  011  the  map.  Most  of  the  other  cities 
marked  on  the  map  are  also  engaged  in  some  kind  of  manufacturing. 
Perhaps  the  shoes  or  some  of  the  clothing  that  you  wear  were  made 
in  one  of  these  places. 

Commerce.  —  Some  of  the  manufactured  articles  are 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  even  to 
other  countries.  It  is  to  a  considerable  extent  this  im- 
mense amount  of  manufacturing  that  furnishes  employ- 
ment to  the  people  along  the  coast,  and  has  caused  the 
large  cities  to  grow  about  the  best  harbors. 

Not  only  do  the  persons  living  in  the  interior  produce 
great  quantities  of  goods  to  be  shipped  away,  but  they 
require  others  to  be  shipped  in.  Much  of  their  food  and 
also  the  cotton,  wool,  and  hides  must  be  brought  to  them. 
The  amount  of  shipping  is  therefore  very  great,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  BOSTON,  PORTLAND,  and 
PROVIDENCE  have  become  large  cities.  To  the  first  two 
goods  are  sent  by  rail  from  the  far  West  to  be  shipped 
abroad. 


148  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  is  it  an  advantage  to  New  Eng- 
land that  its  coast  is  so  irregular?  (2)  Mention  some  of  the  larger 
seaports.  (3)  Name  the  principal  fishing  port  in  the  country.  (4)  Tell 
what  you  can  about  the  farming.  (5)  What  kinds  of  stone  are  found, 
and  for  what  are  they  used  ?  Where  are  they  found  ?  (6)  Describe 
the  lumbering.  Which  state  produces  most  lumber?  (7)  Explain 
how  the  lumber  trade  has  determined  the  location  of  Bangor.  On 
what  river  is  it  situated  ?  (8)  Why  cannot  vessels  go  far  up  the  New 
England  rivers ?  (9)  How  are  the  rivers  useful  for  manufacturing? 
Name  several  that  furnish  water-power.  (10)  What  goods  are  manu- 
factured there?  In  what  cities?  (11)  What  articles  must  be  shipped 
to  this  section?  Why?  (12)  Tell  how  such  commerce  affects  the 
size  of  the  coast  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  stories  of  New  England  do  you  know? 
(2)  Read  about  the  Puritans.  (3)  Go  into  a  fish  store  to  see  a  cod- 
fish, mackerel,  halibut,  etc.  (4)  Examine  some  granite  so  that  you 
will  know  it  the  next  time  you  see  it.  (5)  Find  a  monument  made 
of  white  marble.  (6)  Find  a  house  whose  roof  is  covered  with  slate. 
(7)  Start  a  collection  for  the  school  by  bringing  specimens  of  use- 
ful stones.  (8)  Try  to  find  out  more  about  lumbering  in  Maine. 
Hunt  for  pictures  illustrating  this  work.  (9)  Start  a  school  collec- 
tion of  pictures  from  magazines,  etc.  (10)  How  many  articles  can 
you  mention  that  are  made  of  wood?  (11)  Get  some  friend  to  take 
you  through  some  kind  of  a  factory,  and  tell  the  class  what  you  saw. 
(12)  Draw  a  sketch-map  of  New  England,  locating  the  rivers,  capital 
cities,  and  principal  towns. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  259. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


Capitals  of  Countries: 
Capitals  of  States: 
Other  Cities: 
Canals  : — .. 


O    H     T)  0 

.ZauesvilleS     "wheel  Me 
Columbus 


X.    MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Which  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  bor- 
der on  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  (2)  Which  does  not?  (3)  Which  is 
smallest?  (4)  How  does  Pennsylvania  compare  in  size  with  New 
England?  (You  will  find  the  scale  on  each  map.)  (5)  Name  the 
chief  rivers  and  tell  where  they  are.  (6)  Which  state  extends  far- 
thest east?  Which  farthest  west  ?  (7)  What  natural  boundaries  do 
you  find  between  them  ?  (8)  What  are  the  names  of  the  mountain 
ranges?  (9)  Which  state  has  no  mountains? 

The  Coast-line.  —  Observe  that,  as  in  New  England, 
the  coast-line  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  is  very  irregu- 
lar. At  three  places  the  sinking  of  the  land  has  caused 
the  ocean  water  to  reach  far  into  the  land,  forming  Chesa- 
peake, Delaware,  and  New  York  bays.  Find  each ;  also 
draw  the  coast-line  to  show  these  bays. 

The  Seaports.  —  The  largest  cities  in  New  England 
were  found  along  the  coast  on  bays  similar  to  these,  though 
smaller.  The  same  is  true  here.  NEW  YORK  on  the  first 
named  bay,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  United  States  and 
next  to  the  largest  in  the  world.  Southwest  of  it  is  PHIL- 
ADELPHIA on  the  Delaware,  just  as  far  up  the  river  as 
large  ocean  vessels  can  go.  Farther  south,  near  the  head 
of  Chesapeake  Bay,  is  a  third  great  city,  named  BALTI- 
MORE, in  the  state  of  Maryland. 

REASONS  FOR  THE  GREAT  SIZE  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY 

Cities  near  by.  — Near  New  York  harbor  we  find  not  only 
NEW  YORK,  but  JERSEY  CITY,  NEWARK,  and  BROOKLYN, 

149 


150 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


which  has  lately  become  a  part  of  GREATER  NEW  YORK. 
Other  cities  like  PATERSON  are  not  far  away.  That  is, 
not  only  one,  but  several  great  cities  have  grown  up  here 
very  near  together.  Let  us  see  why  more  people  should 
have  crowded  together  here  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
New  World. 

One  reason  is  that  from  New  York  harbor,  where  hun- 
dreds  of  vessels  may  enter   at   one    time,   goods   can  be 

shipped  over  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  to  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world. 
Water-route  to  the 
Interior.  —  A  second 
reason  is  that  goods 
may  also  be  shipped 
westward  by  water. 
Looking  at  the  map, 
you  see  that  New 
York  Bay  is  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson 


FIG.  133. 

The  broad  Hudson  River   at    Poughkeepsie, 
where  a  railway  bridge  crosses  it. 


River.  The  sinking  of  the  land  has  caused  the  ocean 
water  to  enter  this  river,  and  thereby  to  make  it  so  broad 
and  deep  that  large  vessels  can  ascend  it  as  far  as  ALBANY. 

A  few  miles  from  Albany  the  Mohawk  River  enters  the 
Hudson  from  the  west,  having  its  source  far  over  toward 
SYRACUSE. 

Long  ago  people  saw  that  if  they  could  construct  a 
water-way  from  the  Hudson  River  to  BUFFALO,  they 
could  go  by  water  all  the  way  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  ; 
and  then,  since  the  Great  Lakes  are  connected  with  one 
another,  they  could  go  all  the  way  to  the  western  end  of 
Lake  Superior.  Use  the  scale  of  the  map  (Fig.  124) 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


151 


to  find  how  many  miles  that  is.      Through  what  lakes 
would  the  route  lead  ? 

The  scheme  was  finally  carried  out  by  building  the  Erie 
Canal  from  BUFFALO,  on  Lake  Erie,  to  the  Mohawk  Valley, 
then  down  that  valley  to  ALBANY.  (See  map,  Fig.  132.) 

As  the  Western  country  became  settled,  more  and  more 
goods  were  shipped  to  and  from  New  York.  When  rail- 
ways began  to  be  built  many  of  them  also  led  there.  In 
this  way  New  York  has  become  a  great  city,  and  the  chief 
shipping-point  for  a  large  part  of  the  United  States.  Let 
us  see  what  some 
of  the  goods  are 
that  are  sent  to 
New  York. 

Lumbering.  — 
On  the  map 
(Fig.  132)  you 
will  find  the  Ad- 
irondack Moun- 
tains north  of 
the  Mohawk, 
and  the  Catskill 
Mountains  south 
of  it.  Among 
these  there  are  still  forests,  as  in  Maine,  so  that  lumbering 
is  an  important  industry  there. 

Farming.  —  These  mountains  do  not  cover  all  of  the 
state  ;  most  of  it  is  more  level,  and  has  a  rich  soil  upon  it. 
Farming  is  therefore  much  more  important  than  in  New 
England.  Besides  butter  and  cheese,  considerable  hay 
and  grain  are  produced,  and  an  abundance  of  fruit,  such 
as  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  and  grapes. 


FIG.  134. 

In  a  salt  mine,  a  thousand  feet  beneath  the  surface, 
in  central  New  York.  The  walls  and  sides  of  these 
tunnels  are  glistening* white  salt. 


152  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Salt.  —  An  extensive  bed  of  salt  is  found  deep  down 
in  the  earth,  in  the  central  part  of  the  state.  Salt  is  taken 
from  it  in  many  places,  and  it  was  the  important  salt  in- 
dustry that  determined  the  location,  and  much  of  the 
early  growth,  of  SYRACUSE. 

Manufacturing.  —  Again,  in  this  state,  as  in  New  Eng- 
land, there  are  many  streams  with  waterfalls.  Manufac- 
turing has  therefore  become  extensive. 


FIG.  135. 
Niagara  Falls,  the  greatest  cataract  in  the  world  (160  feet  high) . 

In  ROCHESTER,  at  the  falls  of  the  Genesee  River  (Fig.  75,  p.  85), 
are  many  flour  mills.  The  cities  on  the  Mohawk  are  also  engaged  in 
manufacturing.  What  are  their  names?  In  BUFFALO,  the  second 
city  in  size  in  New  York*  State,  much  use  is  made  of  power  from  the 
Niagara  Falls,  twenty  miles  away.  TROY,  near  ALBANY,  makes 
shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs.  These  cities,  as  you  see,  are  situated  along 
the  water-route  already  mentioned.  Why  ?  What  others  do  you  find 
along  this  route  ? 

In  NEW  YORK  CITY  itself  there  is  a  vast  amount  of  manufacturing, 
steam  being  used  for  power.  In  fact,  in  many  places,  even  where 
there  is  water-power,  factories  now  often  use  steam ;  but  when  the 
manufacturing  began,  people  could  not  use  steam  because  they  did 
not  know  how,  and  the  first  manufacturing  towns  were  built  where 
there  was  water-power. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES  153 

Commerce.  —  So  much  manufacturing,  together  with 
the  farming  and  other  industries  of  the  state,  helps  to 
explain  the  great  amount  of  commerce.  People  are  con- 
tinually sending  goods  to  New  York  and  receiving  others 
from  there.  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  cities 
hundreds  of  miles  farther  west,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  are  connected  with  New  York  by  water 
and  rail,  and  are  engaged  in  trade  with  it. 

From  this  it  is  plain  why  the  largest  city  in  America  is 
situated  where  it  is,  and  why  other  cities  have  grown  up 
about  New  York  harbor. 

REASONS  WHY  PHILADELPHIA  HAS  BECOME  A  GREAT 

CITY 

Cities  near  by.  —  PHILADELPHIA,  like  New  York,  has 
other  important  cities  near  by.  Directly  across  the  Dela- 
ware is  CAMDEN  in  New  Jersey ;  and  to  the  northeast, 
also  in  New  Jersey,  is  TRENTON,  where  a  clay  is  found 
that  is  made  into  dishes  and  earthenware.  To  the  south- 
west is  WILMINGTON  in  Delaware,  where  many  ships  and 
railway  cars  are  built. 

Farming.  —  The  soil  and  climate  in  this  neighborhood 
are  well  adapted  to  fruit-growing,  especially  peaches,  pears, 
apples,  grapes,  and  berries.  On  this  account  there  are 
many  factories  for  canning  fruit  in  some  of  these  cities. 

To  the  northwest  of  Philadelphia  are  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  Note  the  direction  in  which  they  extend 
across  the  state.  The  valleys  among  the  mountains,  and 
the  plateaus  and  lowlands  east  and  west  of  them,  are  fer- 
tile enough  for  good  farming,  especially  wheat  raising, 
sheep  raising,  and  dairying  ;  but  lumbering  is  still  carried 
on  among  the  mountains. 


154 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  136. 

The  forest-covered  slopes  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  in  Pennsylvania,  at 
Mauch  Chunk. 

Iron.  —  Several  substances  found  beneath  the  soil  in 
Pennsylvania  are  its  most  important  products. 

In  the  first  place,  a  great  amount  of  iron  ore  is  found 
there.  When  dug  out  of  the  ground  this  often  resembles 
reddish  earth,  and  it  never  looks  exactly  like  iron ;  but 
by  melting  the  ore,  iron  is  obtained  from  it,  and  is  then 
shipped  to  many  places  to  be  made  into  stoves,  engines, 
guns,  ships,  knives,  and  a  thousand  other  things.  PITTS- 
BURG  and  ALLEGHENY  are  noted  for  such  manufacturing  ; 
also  READING  and  HAERISBURG,  the  capital,  as  well  as 
Philadelphia  and  its  neighboring  cities.  See  how  long  a 
list  you  can  make  of  articles  made  of  iron  and  steel. 

Coal.  —  It  requires  an  immense  amount  of  fuel  to  pro- 
duce the  heat  necessary  to  obtain  iron  from  the  ore  and 
to  make  it  into  the  many  articles  mentioned.  Fortunately 
great  quantities  of  coal  are  also  found  in  this  state,  soft 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


155 


FIG.  137. 

In  a  Pennsylvania  coal  mine,  where  the  walls  are  black  instead  of  white  as  in 
the  salt  mine  (Fig.  134) . 

coal  being  mined  in  the  western  part  near  PITTSBUHG 
and  ALLEGHENY,  and  hard  or  anthracite  coal  in  the  east- 
ern part  near  SCRANTON  and  WILKES  BAKRE. 

Much  coal  is  needed  for  stoves  and  furnaces  in  houses,  and  also 
for  producing  steam  for  factories.  There  is,  therefore,  a  great 
demand  for  it,  and 
every  year  it  is 
shipped  by  thou- 
sands of  carloads 
to  New  York,  Phil- 
adelphia, and  else- 
where, often  to  be 
loaded  upon  ships 
to  be  sent  to  Boston 
and  many  other 
cities. 

Oil  and  Gas.— 
Gas,  much  like  that 
used  jn  lighting 


^t«£!?L^&r 


PRINCIPAL  COAL  FIELDS 

OF  THE 

UMTED  STATES. 


THE  M.-N.   CO. 


FIG.  138. 


156  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

houses,  and  petroleum,  the  oil  from  which  kerosene  is  made,  are  also 
found  beneath  the  soil  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania.  There  is 
so  much  gas  in  some  places  that  it  is  burned  as  a  fuel  in  manufac- 
turing glass  and  other  articles,  as  at  Pittsburg  and  elsewhere. 

Commerce.  —  The  products  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
and  Delaware,  principally  fruity  grain,  lumber,  iron,  coal, 
gas,  and  oil,  together  with  the  manufacture  of  iron  goods, 
have  helped  to  make  Philadelphia  a  great  city.  As  in 
the  case  of  New  York,  many  of  these  substances  are  sent 
to  Philadelphia  to  be  manufactured  ;  and,  like  New  York, 
Philadelphia  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of 
the  country.  Many  other  materials  are  sent  there  to  be 
shipped  away  by  water  ;  and  many  shiploads  of  goods,  for 
people  living  in  other  cities  farther  west,  are  unloaded  at 
Philadelphia. 

OTHER  CITIES 

Baltimore.  —  BALTIMORE  has  grown  in  much  the  same 
way.  Its  harbor  is  excellent,  and  both  coal  and  iron  can 
easily  reach  it  from  Pennsylvania.  Like  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  and  New  York,  it  has  an  important  commerce  and 
much  manufacturing. 

Oysters  abound  in  the  shallow  waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  are 
shipped  from  NORFOLK,  ANNAPOLIS,  and  BALTIMORE. 

Washington.  —  Another  large  city  in  this  section  is 
WASHINGTON,  on  the  Potomac  River  in  the  District  of 
Columbia.  Although  large  vessels  are  able  to  reach  it, 
it  owes  its  importance  not  to  commerce,  but  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  National  Capital,  where  there  are  many  great 
government  buildings  (Fig.  85,  p.  99),  and  thousands  of 
men  and  women  employed  in  the  service  of  the  govern- 
ment. Can  you  describe  some  of  their  work?  (See 
pp.  97  and  98  in  Part  I.) 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES  157 

Virginia  and  West  Virginia.  —  RICHMOND,  on  the  James 
River,  is  the  capital  and  most  important  city  of  Virginia, 
the  state  in  which  Washington  and  Jefferson  lived.  The 
western  part  of  the  state  is  mountainous,  as  is  the  eastern 
part  of  West  Virginia,  the  mountains  furnishing  lumber  and 
iron.  Also  in  West  Virginia,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  there  is  a 
great  amount  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas.  This  leads  to  extensive 
manufacturing,  especially  at  WHEELING  on  the  Ohio  River. 


FIG.  139. 

A  picture  of  Pennsylvania  Avenue  in  Washington,  with  the  National  Capitol 
building  standing  at  the  farther  end. 

Farming  is  the  chief  work  in  Virginia.  The  climate  is 
so  mild  that  tobacco  can  be  raised  much  more  profitably 
than  in  the  states  farther  north.  The  tobacco  plant,  which 
white  men  found  the  Indians  smoking,  has  a  large  leaf 
that  is  picked  and  dried,  and  then  made  into  cigars  and 
other  forms  in  which  tobacco  is  used.  Factories  are 
needed  for  such  work,  and  they  represent  one  of  the  main 
industries  of  RICHMOND,  which  is  a  great  tobacco  market, 
as  Gloucester  is  a  great  fish  market. 


158  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  the  chief  seaports.  Walk  tow- 
ard each  as  you  name  it.  (2)  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the 
great  size  of  New  York  City?  (3)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Hudson 
and  Mohawk  rivers.  (4)  What  cities  do  you  find  on  the  Erie  Canal? 

(5)  What   can   you   say^about   the   farming   in    New  York   State? 

(6)  Where  is  the  salt  found?     (7)   What  about  manufacturing  in 
New  York  ?     (8)   What  are  the  chief  farm  products  near  Philadelphia 
and  Wilmington?     (9)    Why  is  iron   manufacture-  so  important  in 
Pennsylvania?     (10)  Tell  why  Philadelphia  has  become  a  great  city. 

(11)  Where-  are  Pittsburg,  Allegheny,  Scranton,  and  Wilkes  Barre? 

(12)  For  what  is  Baltimore  noted?     (13)  Washington?     (14)  For 
what  industry  is  Richmond  noted?     (15)  Where  are  Richmond  and 
Wheeling?     (16)  In  which  state  is  each  of  the  cities  mentioned? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Make  a  list  of  all  the  cities  named.  (2)  Are 
any  of  them  not  located  either  upon  the  seashore,  on  rivers,  or  lakes? 
(3)  Which  is  farther  north,  Buffalo  or  Boston  ?  (see  Fig.  124,  oppo- 
site p.  141.)  (4)  Find  what  some  of  the  chief  difficulties  are  in  build- 
ing canals.  (5)  Examine  some  iron  ore  and  add  it  to  the  school 
collection.  (6)  Visit  a  factory  where  iron  goods  are  manufactured. 

(7)  Why  does  Buffalo  promise  to  be  a  growing  city  ?     (8)  Why  have 
Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  a  good  location?     (9)  Give  two  reasons  why 
Wilmington  is  a  good  place  for  shipbuilding.      (10)    Collect  some 
pieces  of  anthracite  or  hard,  and  bituminous  or  soft,  coal,  and  com- 
pare them.    (11)  Read  the  story  of  Rip  Van  Winkle.    The  mountains 
described  are  the  Catskills.      (12)  Draw  an  outline   map  of  these 
states  and  include  the  capitals.     (13)  Draw  each  of  the  states  from 
memory.     (14)  Find  out  some  facts  about  Washington,  —  its  build- 
ings, the  people  who  live  there,  and  what  they  do.     (15)  On  the  map 
(Fig.  124,  opposite  p.  141)  the  word  Delaware  is  not  spelled  out  be- 
cause there  is  not  room,  but  Del.  is  put  in  its  place.     All  the  states 
have  abbreviations  like  this,  which  we  use  in  writing  letters.     Find 
out  the  abbreviation  for  each  state  in  this  group  and  in  New  England. 
Also  for  the  other  states  as  you  study  about  them. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  259. 


sA^l 

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Fig.  140,  Facing  p.  159 


XL    SOUTHERN   STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS'.  —  (1)  Where  are  the  mountains  in  this  group  of 
states  ?  (2)  Where  are  the  plains  ?  (see  map,  Fig.  140.)  (3)  Notice 
the  direction  in  which  the  land  slopes.  (4)  Name  the  gulf  on  the 
south  side.  (5)  How  is  Texas  separated  from  Mexico  ?  (6)  What 
large  peninsula  do  you  find  on  this  map  ?  (7)  Which  is  the  largest 
state  V  (8)  How  does  it  seem  to  compare  with  South  Carolina  in  size? 
With  Pennsylvania  ?  (9)  About  how  many  miles  is  it  by  sea  from  New 
Orleans  to  Boston?  (see  map,  Fig.  124,  opposite  p.  141.)  (10)  Notice 
how  near  these  states  are  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  (see  map,  Fig.  123, 
opposite  p.  140).  What  does  that  tell  you  about  their  climate? 

Relief. —  The  Appalachian  Mountains  extend  into  Ala- 
bama, passing  across  several  of  the  Southern  states. 
Name  them.  There  are  also  some  low  mountains  in  west- 
ern Arkansas  and  Missouri,  and  a  portion  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  western  Texas. 

But  this  part  of  the  country  is  mainly  a  great  region  of 
plains.  Near  the  mountains,  the  plains  are  quite  high 
above  the  sea ;  but  near  the  coast  there  is  a  strip  of  low, 
level  land  known  as  the  coastal  plains. 

Other  low  land  is  found  along  the  Mississippi  River, 
where  there  are  broad  flood-plains  protected  from  the  river 
floods  by  banks,  called  levees.  Notice  especially  the  Mis- 
sissippi delta,  and  explain  how  it  happens  that  the  land 
projects  so  far  into  the  gulf  (see  pp.  46  and  47). 

We  observe,  then,  that  in  this  group  of  states  are  some 
mountains;  between  these  and  the  coast  are  high  plains 
or  plateaus  ;  then  along  the  coast  are  low  plains.  Let  us 
see  what  these  three  sections  produce. 

159 


160 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Coal  and  Iron.  —  Coal  and  iron  are  found  among  the  Ap- 
palachian Mountains  here,  as  in  Pennsylvania.    You  would 

expect  from  this 
to  find  manufac- 
turing centres 
near  the  moun- 
tains ;  and  BIR- 
MINGHAM, AT- 
LANTA, CHAT- 
TANOOGA, and 
KNOXVILLE 
are  engaged  in 
manufacture. 

FIG.  141. 


Negro  children  cm  a  cotton  plantation.   The  white  spots 
are  cotton  bolls. 


Find  each  and 
tell  what  state 
it  is  in. 

Cotton.  —  On  the  plains  the  soil  is  usually  fertile,  the 
climate  is  warm,  and  there  is  plenty  of  rain  everywhere 
excepting  in  western  Texas  and  Oklahoma.  For  these 
reasons  farming  is 
the  chief  occupa- 
tion. The  south- 
ern farms  are 
commonly  called 
plantations,  and 
the  principal  crop 
on  the  higher 
plains,  away  from 
the  coast,  is  cot- 
ton. 


FIG.  142. 

A  small  cotton-field  and  a  negro  home.     The  cot- 
ton bolls  look  like  white  flowers. 


The  cotton  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  two  to  four  feet.     It  has  a 
white  blossom,  and  after  the  flower  is  gone  a  small  pod  grows.     This 


SOUTHERN  STATES  161 

pod  enlarges  until  it  ripens  and  bursts  into  a  white  ball,  called  the 
cotton  boll,  which  looks  somewhat  like  a  milkweed  pod  after  it  has 
burst  open. 

The  cotton  bolls  are  picked  in  the  autumn,  usually  by  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  then  placed  in  a  machine  called  the  cotton  gin;  this 
removes  the  cotton  seed,  and  also  separates  or  combs  out  the  threads 
of  cotton.  The  cotton  is  then  packed  in  bales,  like  hay,  and  shipped 
away  to  be  made  into  thread,  cotton  cloth,  and  other  goods.  Name 
more  of  them.  Name  some  of  the  cities  in  New  England  where  this 
manufacturing  is  carried  on  (see  p.  147). 

Corn  and  wheat  are  also  grown  upon  these  higher  plains, 
and  tobacco,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  this  section. 


FIG.  143. 
Great  bunches  of  cattle  feeding  on  the  ranches  of  the  arid  plains  of  the  west. 

Ranching.  —  The  drier  plains  of  western  Texas  are 
covered  with  grass,  which  furnishes  food  for  herds  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  The  work  of  raising  these 
animals  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  important  industries 
of  this  state.  The  section  of  land  over  which  a  man's 
cattle  roam  is  not  called  a  farm  or  plantation,  but  a  cattle 
ranch,  and  the  business  is  known  as  ranching. 

Since  a  few  men  can  look  after  several  thousand  horses,  cattle,  or 
sheep,  few  people  are  needed  to  carry  on  ranching.  On  that  account 
there  are  not  many  towns  in  the  western  part  of  Texas,  as  you  can  see 
on  the  map.  Many  cattle  are  sent  eastward  from  DALLAS  by  rail  to 
be  used  as  food. 


162 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  144. 
Negro  women  cutting  sugar-cane  in  Louisiana. 


Sugar  and 
Rice.  —  On  the 
low,  swampy 
plains  near  the 
coast  and  along 
the  lower  Missis- 
sippi River,  rice 
and  sugar-cane 
are  raised.  Rice 
seeds  grow  on  a 
grasslike  plant  in 

wet  soil.    Sugar-cane  looks  much  like  corn  ;  but  the  juice 

of    the    stalk    is    so 

sweet  that  it  can  be 

made  into  sugar  and 

molasses. 

Fruits.  —  Besides  the 
crops  mentioned,  the  low 
plain  of  Florida  produces 
fruits.  It  is  so  far  south 
that  its  climate  is  warm 
enough  for  oranges,  lem- 
ons, and  pineapples;  prob- 
ably your  grocery  store 
has  such  fruits  from  that 
state. 

Lumbering.  —  Some  of 
these  plains,  both  the  high 
and  the  low  ones,  are  still 
wooded.  It  is  from  them 
that  the  hard  or  Georgia 
pine,  so  often  used  in 
floors,  is  obtained.  There  are  forests  also  in  the  mountains,  so  that 
there  is  an  abundance  of  timber  in  this  region.  Which  Northern 


FIG.  145. 
A  pineapple  field  in  Florida. 


SOUTHERN  STATES  163 

state  already  studied  has  a  large  amount  of  timber?    In  what  section 
would  you  expect  the  climate  to  prevent  the  growth  of  forests? 

Manufacturing.  —  Knowing  what  is  produced  in  the 
Southern  states,  we  might  expect  that  there  would  be  a 
great  deal  of  manufacturing.  There  are  coal,  iron  ore, 
corn,  wheat,  sugar-cane,  cattle,  sheep,  cotton,  and  lumber, 
from  each  of  which  useful  articles  can  be  made.  Tell  what 
they  are.  There  is  also  water-power  in  some  places. 

But  it  requires  much  skill  to  handle  machinery,  and 
until  recently  most  of  the  labor  in  the  South  was  done  by 
negro  slaves  who  had  little  education.  Therefore,  before 
the  war  which  freed  the  slaves,  there  was  almost  no  manu- 
facturing in  the  South.  Now  the  negroes  are  learning  to 
work  with  machinery,  and  many  white  men  from  the  North 
have  carried  manufacturing  to  these  Southern  states,  so 
that  the  cities  near  the  coal  and  iron  section  have  grown 
to  be  manufacturing  centres.  Name  them  once  more. 

There  are  also  numerous  lumber  mills ;  and  the  sap  of  the  pine  tree 
is  manufactured  into  turpentine  and  rosin.  In  some  places  tobacco 
is  made  into  cigars,  sugar-cane  into  molasses,  the  hides  of  cattle  into 
leather,  cotton  into  cloth,  and  cotton  seed  into  cotton-seed  oil.  The 
number  of  these  factories  is  increasing  every  year. 

But  even  now  many  of  the  products  of  the  mines  and 
the  soil,  called  raw  products,  are  shipped  away  to  be  manu- 
factured into  useful  articles  in  other  places,  as  New  Eng- 
land. Then,  after  the  articles' are  finished,  some  of  them 
are  brought  back  for  use  in  the  South. 

New  Orleans.  —  Since  farming  is  the  main  occupation, 
many  of  the  people  must  live  some  distance  apart  upon 
their  plantations.  We  need  not  expect,  then,  to  find 
many  large  cities  in  these  states.  The  principal  ones  will 
be  those  that  have  grown  up  at  the  best  shipping  points, 


164  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

that  is  on  the  ocean  harbors,  on  the  rivers,  or  on  some  of 
the  great  railways. 

The  greatest  city  in  this  entire  section  is  NEW  ORLEANS, 
in  Louisiana,  on  the  Mississippi  River  about  one  hundred 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  about  the  size  of  Pittsburg. 


FIG.  146. 

Loading  and  unloading  goods  on  the  levee  at  New  Orleans.    Notice  the  mules, 
one  af  the  most  common  draft  animals  of  the  South. 

Like  New  York  it  can  be  reached  not  only  by  railway, 
but  also  by  vessels  from  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  by 
others  from  distant  inland  cities.  Ocean  ships  are  able  to 
pass  up  the  river  from  the  Gulf;  and  river  boats  can  reach  it 
from  cities  far  up  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  Find 
some  of  these  cities,  such  as  Pittsburg  and  St.  Louis  (Fig. 
124) .  Measure  the  distance  from  New  Orleans  to  Pittsburg. 

These  facts  help  to  explain  why  New  Orleans  is  a  great  cotton- 
shipping  port.  Quantities  of  cotton-seed  oil,  sugar,  molasses,  and  rice 
are  also  sent  from  there.  Manufactured  goods,  as  cloth  and  shoes, 
and  foods,  as  meat  and  corn,  are  brought  to  this  centre,  and  there 
distributed  in  all  directions.  Further  up  the  river  are  VICKSBURG 
and  MEMPHIS,  which  are  important  river  ports. 


SOUTHERN   STATES  1C>5 

Other  Seaports.  —  Not  many  large  cities  are  found  on 
the  Gulf  coast.  One  reason  is  that  the  entrances  to  the 
harbors  are  often  blocked  by  sand-bars.  Also,  since  there 
are  so  few  people  and  cities  inland,  there  is  no  reason  for 
having  many  great  cities  on  the  coast. 

The  largest  seaport  west  of  New  Orleans  is  GALVESTON, 
which  is  somewhat  larger  than  Lynn,  Mass.  What  goods 
are  probably  shipped  from  this  harbor  ?  Remember  the 
low  coastal  plains  and  the  high  dry  plains  to  the  west. 

Along  the  coast  east  of  New  Orleans  are  MOBILE,  a  great  cotton 
port,  TAMPA,  and  PENSACOLA,  a  lumber  port.  Why  lumber?  On 
the  Atlantic  coast  are  JACKSONVILLE,  the  chief  shipping  port  for 
Florida  oranges,  SAVANNAH,  CHARLESTON,  and  WILMINGTON.  Find 
each  of  these  and  tell  what  state  it  is  in. 


FIG.  147. 
Some  of  the  Indians  who  live  in  Indian  Territory. 

Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory.  —  A  few  years  ago  the  section  north 
of  Texas,  now  called  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma,  were  known 
under  the  one  name  of  Indian  Territory,  a  place  set  aside  by  our  gov- 
ernment as  a  home  for  some  of  the  tribes  of  Indians.  But  later,  these 
Indians  were  collected  in  the  part  now  called  Indian  Territory ;  then 
Oklahoma  was  opened  up  to  white  people  for  settlement.  Now  many 
thousands  of  white  men  are  living  in  the  territory  of  Oklahoma. 


166  THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  Southern  states  is  so  mild  that  many 
Northern  people  go  South  in  winter  to  escape  the  cold.  In  the  South- 
ern part  it  rarely  snows,  and  flowers  are  in  blossom  in  midwinter. 
Do  you  know  why  the  song-birds  of  the  North  go  there  in  winter  ? 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  In  which  Southern  and  Northern  states 
are  the  Appalachian  Mountains  found?  (2)  Tell  what  you  can 
about  the  Southern  plains.  (3)  Near  what  cities  are  coal  and  iron  ore 
mined  ?  (4)  Name  and  describe  the  chief  crop  on  the  higher  plains. 
(5)  What  is  done  with  the  cotton  after  it  is  picked?  (6)  What  is 
the  occupation  of  the  people  in  western  Texas  ?  Why  ?  Why  so  few 
towns  there  ?  (7)  What  two  products  are  raised  on  the  warm  coastal 
plains  and  flood-plains  ?  Describe  each.  (8)  W7hat  fruits  are  raised 
in  Florida  ?  Why  raised  there  ?  (9)  What  about  the  lumber  indus- 
try? (10)  Why  should  one  expect  to  find  much  manufacturing  there? 
(11)  What  kinds  are  there?  (12)  Why  not  more?  (13)  Why  are 
there  so  few  large  cities?  (14)  Which  is  the  largest  of  all?  AVhy? 
(15)  W^hat  goods  reach  this  port?  Why?  (16)  Name  and  locate 
the  principal  seaports.  (17)  Make  a  list  of  the  Southern  cities  studied, 
and  locate  each.  (18)  Tell  the  direction  of  each  from  New  Orleans. 
(19)  Tell  something  about  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  coast-line  of  these  states.  Add  the 
rivers,  the  state  boundaries,  and  principal  cities.  Put  in  the  capitals. 

(2)  Represent  the  group  in  sand,  showing  the  mountains  and  plains. 

(3)  Examine   some   cotton.      Make   a    collection    of    articles    made 
from  cotton  and  add  them  to  the  school  collection.     (4)  Inquire  of 
your  groceryman  where   his  oranges  and  other  fruits  were  grown. 
(5)  Examine    some   rice.      (6)  You    can   plant    and  grow  not  only 
wheat,  but  rice,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  other  plants  in  the  schoolroom, 
especially  if  you  can  induce  some  one  who  has  a  hothouse  to  allow 
you  to  start  them  there.     (7)  Why  is  not  New  Orleans  as  large  as 
New  York?     (8)  How  are  the  people  of  New  England  and  those  of 
the  Southern  states  dependent  upon  each  other  in  the  work  that  they 
do?  (9)  Beginning  with  the  New  England  states,  name  those  thus 
far  studied  that  have  mountains  in  them.       (10)  Name  and  locate 
the  chief  cities  in  all  these  states.      (11)  Draw  the  entire  Eastern 
coast-line,  and  put  in  the  larger  cities  and  rivers. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  page  259. 


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XII.    CENTRAL   STATES 


MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  the  states  in  this  group.  (2)  Which 
ones  border  on  the  Great  Lakes?  How  can  goods  be  shipped  from 
them  by  water  to  New  York?  (3)  Name  the  Great  Lakes.  Which 
is  highest  above  the  level  of  the  ocean  ?  Which  is  lowest  ?  (4)  Into 
what  do  they  empty?  (see  Fig.  123.)  (5)  What  are  the  chief  rivers 
in  this  group?  (6)  Into  what  do  their  waters  empty?  (see  Fig.  124, 
opposite  p.  141.)  (7)  Which  states  drain  mainly  into  the  Missouri 
River?  (8)  Into  the  Mississippi?  (9)  Into  the  Ohio?  (10)  Which 
one  into  the  Great  Lakes?  (11)  Find  Chicago.  Can  you  think  of 
any  reason  why  it  should  be  a  great  city  —  the  greatest  in  this  sec- 
tion? (12)  In  which  of  these  states  did  Abraham  Lincoln  live  ? 

Raw  Products.  —  This  group  of  states  has  five  cities 
larger  than  New  Orleans,  two  that  are  almost  as  large, 
and  several  others  that  are  not  very  much  smaller.  These 
facts  tell  us  that  there  are  many  more  people  here  than  in 
the  Southern  states, 
and  that  the  indus- 
tries must  be  far 
more  extensive.  Let 
us  see  what  they  are. 

The  entire  sec- 
tion, as  you  see,  is 
mainly  a  great  plain, 
whose  soil  is  favor- 
able to  farming. 

In  the  western  part  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  two 
Dakotas  this  plain  is  dry,  like  the  western  part  of  Texas. 

167 


FIG.  149. 
A  bunch  of  cattle  on  a  farm  in  western  Kansas. 


168  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  winds  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  lose  their  moisture  as  they  pass  eastward  over  the 
mountains,  while  those  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  At- 
lantic rarely  reach  so  far  as  this  region.  On  that  account 
the  men  of  this  section,  as  in  western  Texas,  are  princi- 
pally engaged  in* raising  cattle  (Fig.  156),  sheep,  and  horses. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  two  Dakotas  and  Minnesota  have 
more  rain;  and  since  the  soil  and  climate  are  favorable, 
it  is  a  great  wheat  region,  the  best  in  the  entire  country. 


FIG.  150. 

Harvesting  wheat  on  one  of  the  great  wheat  fields  of  the  Red  River  Valley  of 
North  Dakota. 

In  Kentucky,  as  in  Virginia,  tobacco  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products  ;  but  in  the  Central  states  perhaps 
the  most  valuable  farm  crop  is  corn.  A  great  deal  of 
that  grain  is  raised  in  every  one  of  these  states,  although 
Iowa  and  Illinois  produce  the  largest  amounts.  In  many 
localities  so  much  is  raised  that  the  cornfields  extend  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach. 

In  all  of  these  states  there  is  much  stock,  each  farmer  usually 
keeping  a  few  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  or  hogs.  Each  state,  likewise, 
produces  wheat  and  other  kinds  of  grain,  as  well  as  wool,  hay,  fruit, 
vegetables,  arid  other  crops.  Ohio  is  especially  noted  for  its  sheep 
and  wheat. 


CENTRAL   STATES 


169 


Underneath  the  soil  in  several  of  the  states,  especially 
in  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  coal  is  mined.     Look  on 


FIG.  151. 

Iron  mining  in  the  famous  Mesabi  district  of  Minnesota,  where  they  shovel 
out  car-loads  of  the  ore  with  great  steam  shovels,  as  gravel  is  often 
shovelled. 

the  map  (p.  155)  to  see  in  what  states  coal  occurs.     In 
Ohio  and  Indiana,  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  found. 

On  the  north- 
western shore  of 
Lake  Superior, 
in  Minnesota, 
and  also  on  the 
southern  side,  in 
Wisconsin  and 
Michigan,  iron 
ore  is  mined,  as 
in  Pennsylvania 
and  Alabama. 
In  fact,  that  re- 
gion produces 
more  iron  ore 


PRINCIPAL 

WHEAT  REGIONS 

OF  THE 

TMTED  STATES. 


FIG.    152. 

Make  a  list  of  the  wheat  producing  states. 

than  any  other  in  the  world.     A  great 
quantity  of  copper  is  also  mined  in  Michigan. 


170 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  northern  parts  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Michi- 
gan also  have  large  forests,  so  that  many  kinds  of  lumber 
are  secured  from  them. 

Now  we  know  the  principal  raw  products  of  the  soil 
and  mines  of  this  region.  We  find  cattle  and  sheep  in  the 
dry  western  section,  wheat  in  the  northwest  and  in  Ohio, 
copper  and  iron  ore  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior, 

lumber  in  the  north, 
tobacco  in  the  south, 
corn  in  the  centre, 
and  a  vast  amount  of 
coal  in  several  of  the 
states.  Many  of  the 
people  of  these  states 
are  engaged  in  ob- 
taining these  raw 
products. 

The  Manufacturing 
and  Trade  Centres.  — 
From  this  it  is  easy 
to  see  the  reason  for 


so  many  people  and 
great    cities   in   this 


FIG.  153. 
Market  Street  in  the  great  city  of  Chicago. 

region.  The  statement  was  made  at  the  beginning  of  this 
section  that  five  cities  here  were  larger  than  New  Orleans, 
and  several  others  about  as  large.  Where  should  they  be 
located  ?  Heretofore  we  have  found  the  great  cities  where 
goods  can  be  shipped  by  water ;  accordingly  we  would 
expect  to  find  them  either  on  the  shores  of  the  Great 
Lakes  or  along  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries. 

Let  us  study  about  some  of  these  cities,  starting  first 
with  CHICAGO.     It  is  next  to  New  York  in  size,  and  is 


CENTRAL   STATES 


171 


situated  on  the  southwestern  end  of  Lake  Michigan  in 
Illinois.  It  has  water  connections  with  New  York  City, 
as  you  know,  and  also  with  the  cities  along  the  St.  Law- 
rence River ;  for  there  is  a  canal  leading  from  Lake  Erie 
to  Lake  Ontario  in  order  to  avoid  the  Niagara  Falls. 

Aside  from  that,  since  Lake  Michigan  extends  so  far  south,  the 
railways  from  the  Dakotas,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  northern  Iowa,  and 
Illinois  must  swing  around  this  southern  end  in  going  east  and  south- 
east. This  makes  that  point  a  great  railway  centre. 


FIG.  154. 
Cattle  in  the  Chicago  stock-yards. 

MILWAUKEE,  farther  north  on  the  lake  shore,  is  much 
smaller  than  Chicago,  but  it  is  one  of  the  two  cities  nearly 
as  large  as  New  Orleans. 

What,  now,  are  likely  to  be  the  industries  of  these  two 
cities  and  the  others  along  the  Great  Lakes.  Quantities 
of  the  raw  products  named  are-  sent  to  Chicago.  It  is  the 
greatest  meat-market  in  the  world ;  and  cattle  and  sheep 
from  the  Western  plains,  and  hogs  from  all  over  the  Central 
states,  are  shipped  to  the  Chicago  stock-yards  (Fig.  154), 


172 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


where  thousands  of  men  are  employed  in  preparing  them 
for  food.  The  business  of  packing,  canning,  and  shipping 
the  meat  requires  a  great  number  of  workmen,  and  the 
tanning  of  the  hides  to  make  leather,  which  is  done  in 
Milwaukee,  also  keeps  many  men  busy. 

Some  of  the  wheat  of  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota  is 
sent  to  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  to  be  ground  into  flour 
for  bread,  the  latter  city  being  specially  noted  for  its 
flour-mills.  But  there  are  also  great  flour-mills  nearer 
the  wheat  fields.  In  southeastern  Minnesota  are  falls  in 


FIG.  155. 

St.  Anthony  Falls,  in  the  Mississippi,  around  which  Minneapolis  has  grown. 
These  falls  furnish  power  for  a  number  of  great  flour-mills. 

the  Mississippi  River  (Fig.  155)  which  furnish  excellent 
water-power,  so  that  flour-mills  have  been  built  there  and 
the  city  of  MINNEAPOLIS  has  grown  up  about  them. 

Only  a  few  miles  away,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, is  ST.  PAUL,  which  owes  its  growth  partly  to  the  fact  that  it  is 
a  centre  for  the  sale  of  machinery,  clothing,  and  other  articles  needed 
by  the  farmers  who  raise  the  wheat.  Name  some  of  the  articles  they 
need  to  buy. 

While  much  flour  is  made  in  the  West,  a  great  deal  of  the  wheat 
is  sent  to  DULUTH,  on  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  there 
shipped  over  the  Great  Lakes,  whence  it  goes  to  New  York  and  even 
to  Europe.  Why  should  Duluth  be  selected? 


CENTRAL   STATES  173 

Chicago  has  no  water-power  for  manufacturing,  but  it 
is  the  nearest  lake  port  to  the  Illinois  coal-fields,  and  draws 
upon  them  for  fuel  to  produce  steam  for  factories.  Thus 
it  is  made  a  great  centre  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  goods 
and  furniture,  receiving  both  iron  ore  and  lumber  in  lake 
vessels.  But  the  other  lake  ports  share  in  this  work,  espe- 
cially the  great  cities  of  CLEVELAND,  DETROIT,  and  TO- 
LEDO, which  are  within  easy  reach  of  the  raw  products. 

Another  important  product  that  reaches  Chicago  is  corn.  There 
it  is  ground  into  corn-meal  or  made  into  hominy,  starch,  and  other 
substances.  So  much  corn  and  wheat  are  carried  there  that  Chicago 
is  a  great  grain  as  well  as  meat  market. 

Locate  the  principal  cities  along  the  Great  Lakes.  Named  in  order 
of  size  they  are  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Milwaukee,  Toledo,  and 
Duluth.  In  what  state  is  each  of  these?  Also  find  SAGINAW  and 
GRAND  RAPIDS,  two  important  lumber  manufacturing  cities. 

We  said  that  the  other  great  cities  should  be  looked  for 
upon  the  water  ways  formed  by  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its  largest  tributaries.  The  greatest  of  these  tributaries 
is  the  Missouri  River,  and  a  very  large  city,  ST.  Louis,  is 
situated  near  where  it  enters  the  Mississippi. 

St.  Louis  is  connected  with  the  country  far  to  the 
northwest  by  the  Missouri  River ;  with  Minneapolis  by 
the  Mississippi ;  with  Pittsburg  by  the  Ohio  ;  and  on  the 
south  with  Memphis,  New  Orleans,  and  the  ocean.  Natu- 
rally, as  people  settled  here,  railways  were  built,  until, 
like  Chicago,  it  has  become  one  of  the  great  railway 
centres  in  the  country.  Like  Chicago,  also,  it  draws  to 
itself  all  the  products  that  have  been  named. 

Although  a  great  many  cattle  and  sheep  reach  St.  Louis  and  Chi- 
cago, making  them  important  meat-markets,  many  of  these  animals 
are  slaughtered  near  the  plains  on  which  they  are  raised,  and  that 


174 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


PRINCIPAL 

Cattle  Raising  District 

OF  THE 

'UNITED  STATES. 


THE  M.-N.   CO. 


fact  explains  the  importance  of  OMAHA  and  KANSAS   CITY.     Both 
these  noted  meat-markets  are  on  the  Missouri  River.     Horses  and  wool 

^_^ are     also     shipped 

from  these  cities. 

Much  wheat  and 
corn  are  brought 
to  St.  Louis,  mak- 
ing it  an  impor- 
tant grain-market. 
A  great  deal  of  to- 
bacco also  goes  to 
St.  Louis ;  but  since 
Kentucky  is  the 
chief  tobacco  rais- 
ing state  in  the 
Fm  156  Mississippi  Valley, 

its     leading     city, 

LOUISVILLE,  is  the  great  tobacco  market  of  that  section,  as  Richmond 
is  for  Virginia.     It  is  also  an  important  manufacturing  centre. 


The  manufacture  of  clothing  is  an  important  industry 
in  CINCINNATI  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  much  machinery 
is  made  there  from  iron  ore  sent  from  Pennsylvania  and 
West  Virginia.  Why  from  these  states  rather  than  from 
Lake  Superior  ? 

One  of  the  largest  cities  in  these  Central  states,  INDIAN- 
APOLIS, the  capital  and  largest  city  in  Indiana,  is  located 
away  from  the  great  waterways.  But  it  is  in  a  rich  farm- 
ing country,  and  as  railways  enter  it  from  all  directions, 
it  has  become  the  chief  trade  centre  of  that  state.  COLUM- 
BUS, the  capital  of  Ohio,  is  another  great  trade  centre. 

Locate  the  principal  cities  on  the  large  rivers  and  tell 
for  what  they  are  important.  Ranked  in  order  of  size  they 
are,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Minneapolis,  Kansas 
City,  St.  Paul,  and  Omaha.  In  which  state  is  each  of  these  ? 


CENTRAL   STATES  175 

Review  and  Comparisons.  —  We  have  seen  that  the  farm  products 
and  manufactures  of  the  Central  states  are  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  Southern  states.  Make  a  list  of  these  for  each  of  the  groups 
and  compare  them.  Compare  them  in  the  same  way  with  those  of 
New  England.  With  those  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states.  Explain, 
as  well  as  you  can,  the  causes  for  these  differences. 

Make  a  list  of  the  six  largest  cities  in  each  of  these  four  groups  of 
states.  When  in  doubt  as  to  whether  one  city  is  larger  than  another, 
look  up  the  population  in  the  tables  on  page  265.  Add  together  the 
populations  of  each  group  of  cities  and  compare  the  results. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Describe  the  surface  of  the  Central 
states.  (2)  What  four  states  are  dry  in  the  western  part?  Why? 

(3)  Compare  the  products  of  these  with  those  of  western  Texas. 

(4)  Where  is  our  greatest  wheat  region  ?     (5)  Where  in  this  group  of 
states  are  copper  and  iron  ore  mined?     (6)  Where  is  lumber  found? 

(7)  Tobacco?      (8)  Corn?      (9)  Coal?      (10)  For  what  products  is 
Ohio  noted?     (11)  Give  some  reasons  why  Chicago  has  become  so 
great  a  city.     (12)  Also  St.  Louis.     (13)  Name  and  locate  the  chief 
cities  along  the  Great  Lakes,  giving  the  main  industries  of  each. 
(14)  Do  the  same  with  the  cities  along  the  great  rivers.     (15)  What 
was  said  about  Indianapolis  and  Columbus? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Draw  the  Mississippi  River  with  its  two  main 
tributaries.  Add  to  the  drawing  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts.  Make  a  cross  where  each  of  the  large  cities  is 
located,  and  write  its  name.  (2)  Locate  your  own  home  on  this  map 
and  notice  its  direction  and  distance  from  some  of  the  large  cities. 
(3)  Add  some  wheat  and  corn  to  the  school  collection.  (4)  Grow  some 
of  each  in  the  school.  (5)  Tell  from  what  animals  wool,  beef,  pork, 
mutton,  lard,  and  leather  come.  (6)  Find  out  about  the  buffalo  and 
Indians  that  used  to  live  on  the  plains.  (7)  Read  about  the  early 
French  explorers.  About  the  pioneers  who  first  settled  these  plains. 

(8)  According  to  the  scale  of  the  map  (Fig.  124)  how  does  Kansas  coin- 
pare  in  size  with  Connecticut?    (9)  With  the  whole  of  New  England? 
(10)  Estimate  the  entire  length  of  the  Mississippi  River  according  to 
the  scale  on  Figure  124.      (11)  Draw  a  map  of  the  Central   states 
similar  to  that  of  New  England,  and  put  in  the  capitals. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  259. 


XIII.    WESTERN   STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS. — (1)  In  what  directions  do  the  mountains  ex- 
tend? (2)  Xame  the  principal  ranges.  (3)  Which  are  the  chief 
rivers  ?  (4)  Make  a  drawing  of  them.  (5)  In  what  sections  do 
there  seem  to  be  few  rivers  ?  (6)  What  does  that  suggest  about  rain- 
fall? (7)  Some  rivers  empty  into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet.  What 
does  that  suggest  (see  p.  55)  ?  (8)  How  far  is  it  across  the  United 
States  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  boundary?  (9)  Measure 
the  length  of  California.  Compare  its  size  with  Pennsylvania ;  with 
Texas;  with  Massachusetts.  (10)  Compare  the  coast-line  with  that 
of  New  England.  What  does  that  suggest  about  harbors  and  cities? 
(11)  Where  are  Denver  and  San  Francisco? 

Reasons  why  there  are  so  Few  People.  —  This  group  of 
states  is  much  larger  than  either  of  the  other  four,  form- 
ing about  one-third  of  the  entire  United  States.  But 
they  are  thinly  settled,  having  only  about  one-fourth  as 
many  people  as  the  Southern  states  alone.  Two  divi- 
sions, Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  are  still  territories,  like 
Oklahoma,  because  they  have  so  few  inhabitants. 

One  reason  they  have  so  few  people  is  that  most  of  the 
early  settlers  came  from  Europe,  and  naturally  located  in 
the  Eastern  and  Southern  states.  It  was  only  after  these 
parts  were  fairly  well  occupied  that  many  people  moved 
farther  westward. 

Another  important  reason  is  the  mountainous  condition 
of  the  country.  Much  of  this  section  is  a  vast,  dry  pla- 
teau, usually  more  than  a  mile  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Extending  across  the  plateau  from  north  to  south  are 

176 


T^%^^ 

4_iH  n  <j*m 


s^4?^\^*^V\  §    /     !V  T, 

c    ^^^    Xx  ^^-^^S^ 

\   \  f       °^<C       -  \    I  ^a.  /itl.ir.iui'rqu 


WESTERN  STATES 


177 


several  great  mountain  ranges.  The  mountains  along  the 
Pacific  coast  are  called  the  Coast  Ranges,  those  in  eastern 
California  the  Sierra  Nevada',  and  those  farther  north,  in 
Oregon  and  Washington,  the  Cascade  Ranges.  Far  east 
of  these  long  chains  are  others  called  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
All  of  these  mountains  together  are  known  as  the  Western 
Cordilleras. 

The  Cordilleras  are  far  higher  and  steeper  than  the  Appa- 
lachians in  the  East,  and  they  are  very  rocky,  so  that  farm- 


FIG.  158. 
A  geyser  in  eruption  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 

ing  is  impossible  on  much  of  the  land.  Indeed,  in  many 
parts  they  are  so  rough  that  it  is  difficult  to  travel  among 
them ;  this  is  indicated  by  the  name  Rocky  Mountains. 

Still  another  reason  why  there  are  so  few  people  is  that, 
even  where  the  soil  is  fertile,  the  climate  is  usually  too 
dry  for  farming,  because  the  winds  that  reach  it  do  not 
carry  much  vapor. 


178 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 




FIG.  159. 

A  view  in  the  great  Colorado  Canyon,  where  the  Colorado  River  flows  in  a 
deep  gorge  cut  in  the  plateau,  to  a  depth  of  over  a  mile. 

Wonderful  Scenery.  —  Some  of  the  places  in  this  section 
are  among  trhe  most  interesting  in  the  world.  For  exam- 
ple, in  northwestern  Wyoming  are  hundreds  of  springs 
where  the  water  is  so  hot  that  it  boils.  At  some  points 
boiling  water  and  steam  occasionally  shoot  upward  with  a 
roar,  from  holes  in  the  ground,  and  rise  frequently  to  a 
height  of  one  or  two  hundred  feet.  These  are  called 
geysers  (Fig.  158),  and  there  are  scores  of  them  in  this 
region. 

Here,  too,  is  the  Yellowstone  River,  whose  waters  tum- 
ble 308  feet  in  a  single  fall,  which  is  nearly  twice  as  high 
as  the  Niagara  Falls  in  New  York.  In  the  deep  gorge 
that  the  river  has  cut  below  the  falls,  the  rocky  banks  are 


WESTERN  STATES 


179 


in  places  fully  one-fourth  of  a  mile  high  and  beautifully 
colored.  Our  nation  has  set  aside  this  wonderful  region 
as  a  park,  naming  it  the  Yellowstone  National  Park;  and 
each  year  hundreds  of  people  travel  there  to  see  it. 

There  are  many  other  interesting  places  to  visit  in  this 
western  country  ;  but  none  are  more  wonderful  than  the 
Colorado  Canyon  (Fig.  159),  an  immense  river  valley  Cut 
in  the  rocks  of  the  plateau,  in  places  to  a  depth  of  over  a 
mile.  Trace  its  course  on  the  map. 

Mining.  —  Although  so  rocky  and  so  arid,  there  are 
some  very  important  industries  in  the  Western  states ; 
and  in  order  to  find  out  what  they  are,  let  us  first  study 
the  mountains.  You  remember  that  iron  ore  and  coal  are 
found  in  the  Appalachians ;  do  you  remember  in  what 
states  ?  Some  coal  and  iron  ore  are  also  mined  in  the 
Cordilleras ;  but  even  more  valuable  minerals  than  these 
are  found  in  the  mountain  rocks. 

In  1848  gold  was  discovered  in 
California.  Bits  of  this  heavy  metal 
lay  in  some  of  the  stream  beds,  and 
could  be  obtained  by  carefully  wash- 
ing the  lighter  dirt  away  (Fig.  160). 
News  of  the  discovery  quickly 
spread  throughout  the  world,  and 
men  hastened  to  the  gold  fields  by 
thousands.  Ever  since  then  Cali- 
fornia has  been  one  of  the  leading 
states  in  the  production  of  gold. 

There  were  no  railways  then  in 
the  West,  so  that  some  men  from  the  East  crossed  the 
plains  and  mountains  in  wagons,  in  which  they  were  in 
danger  of  being  attacked  by  savage  Indians ;  others  made 


FIG.  160. 

Miners  washing,  or  "  pan- 
ning," gravel  to  see  if 
there  is  any  gold  in  it. 


180 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


the  long  journey  in  vessels.  What  route  must  they  have 
taken?  The  best  harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast  was  San 
Francisco  Bay,  where  a  small  Spanish  town  had  existed 
for  years.  Soon  people  crowded  in  so  rapidly  that  the 
town  of  SAN  FRANCISCO  became  a  great  city  and  the  chief 
trade  centre  in  the  West. 

The  metal  was  also  found  under  the  soil  in  the  midst  of 
solid  rock.  Rock  with  gold  in  it  is  called  gold  ore,  and 
must  be  crushed  into  fine  bits  before  the  gold  can  be 

collected.  This 
requires  much 
machinery,  and 
is  one  of  the  im- 
portant parts  of 
mining  (Fig. 
22,  p.  24).  A 
great  deal  of 
this  kind  of  ore 
is  now  mined  in 
California. 

Gold  is  also 
found  in  Colo- 
rado, and  many  men  have  been  attracted  to  that  state,  as 
formerly  to  California.  Indeed  more  gold  now  comes  from 
Colorado  than  from  California.  DENVER,  the  largest  city 
in  Colorado,  and  PUEBLO,  owe  their  growth  partly  to  the 
gold  mines  near  them.  Find  these  cities  on  the  map. 

Silver  is  another  precious  metal  mined  in  the  West,  and 
Colorado  produces  more  of  it  than  any  other  state.  With- 
out doubt  some  of  the  gold  and  silver  that  you  have  seen 
came  from  the  mountain  rocks  of  California  or  Colorado. 
For  what  purposes  are  these  metals  used  ? 


'Arizona 
CHIEF 

Iron,  Gold,  Silver  and 
Copper  Districts 

OF  THE 

CMTED  STATES. 

CZJIron     ^Gold  &,  Silver 


FIG.  161. 
In  what  states  is  each  found  ? 


STATES 


181 


Large  quantities  of  both  metals  are  also  mined  in  the 
other  states  and  territories  of  this  section,  especially  in 
the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,  in  Montana,  Nevada, 
and  Utah. 

Much  copper  is  mined  in  the  West,  especially  at  BUTTE, 
Montana,  where  the  greatest  copper  mines  in  the  world 
are  located,  and 
in  the  territory  of 
Arizona.  Lead  is 
a  fourth  impor- 
tant metal  ob- 
tained from  these 
Western  states. 

Cities  have 
grown  up  near 
some  of  these 
mines  ;  but  there 
are  many  mines  in  the  mountains  far  away  from  the  cities. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country  travellers  may  see,  from  the 
car  windows,  scores  of  little  tunnels  dug  into  the  sides  of 
the  mountains,  by  men  who  were  hunting  for  ore.  It 
is  a  hard,  lonely  life,  and  many  find  little  ore ;  but  one 
occasionally  makes  a  discovery  that  brings  him  a  fortune. 

Ranching.  —  The  mountains,  therefore,  are  chiefly  val- 
uable for  their  ores;  but  the  high  plains  and  plateaus  also 
have  some  worth.  There  is  little  rain  upon  them ;  but, 
as  in  the  western  part  of  the  two  Dakotas,  Nebraska,  Kan- 
sas, and  Texas,  there  is  often  grass  enough  for  raising 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  The  animals  raised  are  finally 
shipped  eastward  to  furnish  meat,  leather,  and  wool.  In 
these  states  the  cowboys  live,  spending  most  of  their 
days  upon  their  horses. 


FIG.  162. 

These  piles  of  dirt  and  rock  are  the  waste  dumped 
aside  by  miners  as  they  have  dug  into  the  earth 
for  ore. 


182 


THE  EARTH  AS  A   WHOLE 


The  Desert. —  In 

some  parts  of  this 
dry,  or  arid,  region 
there  is  so  little  rain 
that  it  is  a  true  des- 
ert. One  can  travel 
for  scores  of  miles 
and  see  scarcely  any 
vegetation  except- 
ing cactus,  a  little 
grass,  and  such 
plants  as  grow  in 
arid  regions.  There 
are  no  trees;  there 
is  no  water ;  in  fact, 
there  is  little  but 
sand  and  rock  to  be 
seen !  No  wonder 
that  many  a  family, 
with  their  horses  or  oxen,  died  of  thirst  and  hunger  in 
attempting  to  cross  this  desert  waste  in  search  of  Cali- 
fornia gold  fifty  years  ago. 

Irrigation.  —  However,  by  irrigation  (see  p.  48)  parts 
of  these  deserts  are  changed  into  gardens.  To  irrigate 
the  thirsty  soil,  which  is  usually  fertile,  men  dig  ditches 
and  lead  the  water  from  streams  that  are  fed  by  the  rain 
and  melting  snow  of  the  high  mountains. 

The  Mormons  of  Utah,  a  people  who  were  driven  out 
of  the  Eastern  states  many  years  ago,  and  who  settled  in 
that  barren  region,  have  changed  the  desert  to  a  garden 
by  means  of  irrigation.  They  have  also  built  the  beauti- 
ful SALT  LAKE  CITY  near  Salt  Lake ;  and  not  far  away 


FIG.  163. 
A  western  cowboy. 


WESTERN  STATES 


183 


from  this  is  OGDEN,  a  busy  railway  centre,  where  there 
are  not  so  many  Mormons.  Find  these  places  on  the 
map. 

People  living  near  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains raise  much  of  their  food  by  the  aid  of  irrigation.  Near 
Denver  is  a  great  irrigation  ditch  leading  from  the  moun- 
tains ;  and  while  the  land  just  above  the  level  of  the  ditch 
is  fit  for  nothing  but  grazing,  that  below  it,  which  can  be 
flooded  with  the  water,  produces  excellent  crops. 


FIG.  164. 

The  desert  of  Utah,  near  Great  Salt  Lake,  where  there  is  no  fresh  water, 
where  it  rarely  rains,  and  where  there  is  very  little  vegetation. 

Irrigation  is  growing  more  common  every  year,  and  by 
the  aid  of  it  people  often  raise  food  for  stock,  as  well  as  for 
themselves.  They  even  build  great  reservoirs  to  collect 
the  water  for  use  in  the  summer  (Fig.  49,  p.  53);  but 
most  of  this  barren  waste  can  never  make  good  farm  land, 
because  there  is  not  enough  water. 

Fruit  Raising. — We  have  been  studying  the  moun- 
tains, high  plains,  and  plateaus,  finding  mining  and  graz- 
ing to  be  the  chief  industries,  with  farming  where  the  soil 
is  irrigated  r 


184 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Let  us  now  examine  the  land  nearer  the  coast.  South- 
ern California  also  has  an  arid  climate  where  farming 
cannot  be  carried  on  without  irrigation.  But  since  the 
climate  of  the  region  is  warm,  as  in  Florida,  the  fruits  that 

grow  in  southern 
countries,  such  as 
oranges,  lemons, 
peaches,  olives, 
and  figs,  are  easily 
raised. 

In  the  midst  of 
this  beautiful  fruit 
country,  where  the 
climate  is  so  fine, 
is  the  beautiful 
city  of  Los  ANGE- 
LES, an  important 
railway  centre,  sur- 
rounded by  thriving  towns  and  orange  groves  (Fig.  165). 
Everywhere  in  that  vicinity  the  main  work  is  fruit 
raising  by  aid  of  irrigation.  Without  it  a  piece  of  land 
produces  no  crops,  while  a  well-irrigated  orchard  by  its 
side  thrives  wonderfully  well.  Visitors  are  usually  sur- 
prised to  see  such  a  striking  difference. 

Industries  along  the  Pacific  Coast.  —  Farther  north, 
toward  San  Francisco  and  beyond  it,  the  rainfall  is  heav- 
ier ;  but  irrigation  is  necessary  in  many  places.  The  most 
common  fruits  are  grapes,  plums,  peaches,  and  apricots. 
Considerable  wheat  is  also  raised,  and  sheep  are  numerous. 
This  is  the  country  of  "  big  trees,"  too,  the  largest  in  the 
world  being  found  in  the  vast  forests  among  the  moun- 
tains* 


FIG.  105. 

An  orange  grove  near  Los  Angeles  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, the  irrigation  ditch  being  seen  between 
the  two  rows  of  orange  trees. 


WESTERN  STATES 


185 


Still  farther  north,  between  Oregon  and  Washington, 
you  will  find  a  large  river  on  the  map.  What  is  its  name  ? 
Here  the  moist  winds  from  the  ocean  cause  heavy  rainfall, 
so  that  irrigation  near  the  coast  is  unnecessary.  On  the 
mountain  slopes  are  extensive  forests,  and  there  are  large 
lumber  mills,  especially  in  Washington  along  Puget  Sound. 
Find  this  sound  (Fig.  124). 

In  this  section  there  are  many  cattle  and  sheep  ranches, 
and  quantities  of  wheat  are  raised.  Fruit  raising,  espe- 
cially peaches  and  apples,  is  also  an  important  industry. 
Salmon  are  abundant  in  the  Columbia  River,  so  that  the 
fishing  industry  is 
important  there,  as 
at  Gloucester,  Mas- 
sachusetts. What 
kinds  are  caught 
there?  (seep.  143.) 

The  Cities  of  the 
Pacific  Slope. — The 
largest  city  north 
of  San  Francisco  is 
PORTLAND,  on  the 
Columbia  River. 
Like  New  Orleans 
it  is  about  one  hun- 
dred miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  can  be 
reached  by  ocean 
vessels.  The  other  large  cities  are  TACOMA  and  SEATTLE 
on  Puget  Sound,  and  SPOKANE,  a  manufacturing  centre, 
at  the  falls  in  the  Spokane  River. 


FIG.  166. 

One  of  the  "  big  trees."  Notice  that  through  a 
hole  cut  in  the  trunk  a  large  wagon  can  be 
driven. 


186  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Comparing  the  Pacific  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  one  sees 
some  striking  differences.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  low  and 
extremely  irregular,  having  many  bays  and  fine  harbors, 
with  numerous  great  cities  about  them.  But  the  Pacific 
coast  has  steep  mountains  in  many  places,  and,  except  in 
the  very  north,  is  regular,  having  few  fine  harbors  and 
large  cities.  San  Francisco  is  the  most  important,  being 
larger  than  New  Orleans.  Los  Angeles  is  twenty-five 
miles  away  from  the  coast ;  but  Portland,  Tacoma,  and 
Seattle  are  all  seaports. 

From  the  four  coast  cities  and  from  Los  Angeles,  goods 
are  shipped  over  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  Japan,  China,  Aus- 
tralia, and  even  around  South  America  to  the  Atlantic 
coast.  This  is  an  important  trade,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
so  extensive  as  the  ocean  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
cities.  The  fact  that  we  now  control  the  Philippine  and 
Hawaiian  islands  will  cause  this  trade  to  increase;  and 
when  the  Nicaragua  Canal  is  finished,  there  will  be  still 
more  ocean  commerce.  Why  ? 

At  present  the  greater  part  of  the  products  of  the 
Western  states,  even  of  the  coast  cities,  instead  of  being 
shipped  by  water,  are  sent  eastward  by  rail.  There  are 
railway  lines  connecting  each  of  the  large  Western  cities 
with  all  portions  of  the  Eastern  states. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Compare  the  size  of  this  group  of  states 
with  that  of  the  other  groups.  (2)  What  about  the  number  of  people 
there?  (3)  Give  three  reasons  why  there  are  so  few.  (4)  Name 
each  of  the  mountain  ranges,  finding  each  on  the  map,  Fig.  124. 
(5)  Tell  what  a  visitor  may  see  in  the  Yellowstone  Park.  Where  is 
it?  (6)  Where  is  San  Francisco?  What  caused  its  early  rapid 
growth?  (7)  Where  is  Denver?  Give  a  reason  for  its  importance. 
(8)  What  metals  are  obtained  in  the  West?  (9)  Wrhere  is  each  found? 


WESTERN  STATES  187 

(10)  Tell  what  you  can  about  each.     (11)  What  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry on  the  high  plains  and  plateaus?     Why?     (12)  Why  cannot 
the  whole  desert  be  irrigated?     (13)  WThat  city  have  the  Mormons 
built?     Where  is  it?     (14)  Where  is  Los  Angeles?     (15)   What  is 
raised  near  there?    Why?     (16)    What  is  raised  in  other  parts  of 
California?     (17)   Name  the  products  of   Oregon  and  Washington. 
(18)  Where  is  the  chief  city  in  Oregon?    Why  there?    (19)  What  are 
the  chief  cities  in  Washington?     (20)   Name  the  cities  on  the  Pacific 
coast  having  excellent    harbors.      Name    several  on   the   Atlantic. 
(21)  How  do  the  two  coasts  differ?     (22)  Where  are  the  products  of 
the  Pacific  coast  sent  ?     How  ? 

(23)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  cities  studied  in  the  United 
States.  (24)  In  what  direction  is  each  from  Chicago  ?  (25)  Make 
a  map  of  the  United  States,  placing  on  it  each  of  the  states  with  their 
names.  Put  on  the  map  the  names  of  the  capitals.  (26)  Which 
states  have  a  sea-coast? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Write  a  story  describing  a  journey  across  the 
plains  and  mountains  to  California  in  the  early  days.  (2)  Make  a 
list  of  articles  made  of  gold;  of  silver;  of  copper;  of  lead.  Collect 
some  ores  of  these  for  the  school.  (3)  What  stories  have  you  read 
about  the  life  of  cowboys?  About  the  Western  Indians?  (4)  Find 
out  something  about  the  Yosemite  Valley.  (5)  Ask  a  storekeeper 
what  California  fruits  he  keeps.  (6)  Visit  a  fish-market  to  see  some 
salmon.  Find  a  picture  of  one  in  the  dictionary.  (7)  Add  together 
the  population  of  the  five  largest  cities  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Compare 
that  number  with  the  population  of  the  five  largest  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  You  will  find  a  table  giving  population  of  cities  on  page  265. 
(8)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Pacific  coast,  showing  the  cities.  Add 
the  rivers.  (9)  Find  out  what  large  animals  live  among  the  moun- 
tains. (10)  What  is  the  distance  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York? 

(11)  Past  what  cities  must  the  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  River  run, 
in  flowing  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico?    Through  what  states?    (12)  Write 
to  some  Western  railway,  as  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe 
office  in  Chicago,  the  Northern  Pacific  office  at  St.  Paul,  or  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  at  Denver,  for  their  illustrated  circulars,  in  which 
there  are  many  views  of  Western  scenery. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  260, 


XIV.    ALASKA 

ALASKA,  which  you  see  on  the  map  (Fig.  123,  opposite 
p.  140),  although  a  part  of  the  United  States,  is  a  great 
distance  from  us.  Our  country  purchased  this  cold,  bar- 
ren land  from  Russia.  It  is  so  far  north  that  it  is  partly 
in  the  Arctic  Zone,  and  many  people  thought  that  our 
government  wasted  the  $7,200,000  that  were  paid  for  it. 


FIG.  167. 

A  street  in  Sitka,  Alaska.    Although  it  is  summer,  notice  the  snow  on  the 

mountains. 

But  Alaska  has  proved  valuable  in  several  ways.  Dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  thousands  of  men  have  gone  there  in 
search  of  gold,  just  as  years  ago  thousands  rushed  to  Cali- 
fornia. You  have  probably  heard  of  the  famous  Klon- 
dike region  where  so  much  gold  has  been  found.  The 

188 


ALASKA 


189 


Klondike  is  a  stream  flowing  into  the  Yukon  River  just 
east  of  the  boundary  line  between  Alaska  and  Canada. 
Find  it.  The  Klondike  region  itself  is  in  Canada. 

Much  gold  is  also  mined  on  the  coast  just  north  of  SITKA,  the  cap- 
ital of  Alaska,  and  in  other  places  as  well.     But  the  country  is  so  far 
north  that  little  food  can  be 
raised,  and  mining  in  many 
parts    is    not   only   difficult 
but  dangerous. 

Much  sealskin  for  cloaks 
and  caps  conies  from  Alaska . 
A  few  hundred  miles  south- 
west of  the  mouth  of  the 
Yukon  River  are  the  small 
Pribilof  Islands,  to  which 
thousands  of  seals  come 
every  spring  to  rear  their 
young.  Seal  hunters  are 
allowed  by  the  government 
to  capture  some  of  these  for 
their  fur,  which  is  warm  Fl(J  1(;8 

and  beautiful,  but  very  ex- 
Some  of  the  fur-seal  on  the  Pnbilof 
pensive  because  the  annuals  Islands. 

are  not  abundant. 

There  are  great  forests  in  some  parts  of  Alaska,  and  the  fishing  is 
good.  Not  only  is  Alaska  valuable  at  present,  but  it  will  probably  be 
even  more  valuable  in  the  future. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Where  is  Alaska?  (2)  In  what  zones? 
(3)  How  did  we  obtain  it  ?  (4)  \Vhat  is  done  there  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  Yukon  River.  (2)  Measure  its 
length  and  compare  it  with  that  of  the  Mississippi.  (3)  How  does 
the  coast  compare  with  that  of  California?  Of  Maine?  (4)  Read 
something  about  the  fur  seal.  Examine  some  fur.  (5)  Find  out 
something  about  a  journey  to  the  Klondike. 

Fou  REFERENCES,  see  page  260, 


XV.  CANADA  AND  OTHER  COUNTRIES  NORTH 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  How  far  are  Detroit,  Buffalo,  and  Chicago 
from  Canada?  (See  map  opposite  p.  167.)  (2)  What  Falls  in  the 
river  between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie?  (3)  What  effect  have  they 
upon  shipping?  (4)  In  what  part  of  Canada  would  you  expect  to 
find  most  of  the  people?  Why?  (5)  What  large  bay  in  northeastern 
Canada?  (See  map  opposite  p.  140.)  (6)  What  can  you  say  about 
the  climate  of  the  country  north  of  this?  (7)  Which  of  the  Great 
Lakes  is  entirely  within  the  United  States?  (8)  Into  what  large 
river  do  the  Great  Lakes  empty  ? 

CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND 

Industries.  —  Canada  is  a  British  colony ;  and  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  also  belong  to  England,  but  are 
separate  from  Canada. 

Much  of  this  region  is  cold  and  bleak ;  but  the  south- 
ern part  resembles  the  northern  United  States  in  climate 
and  soil,  so  that  the  products  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
boundary  may  be  expected  to  correspond. 

Fishing  was  found  to  be  an  important  industry  along 
the  New  England  coast  (p.  143)  ;  so  it  is,  also,  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  Newfoundland. 

Maine  in  the  East  and  Washington  in  the  West  are  cov- 
ered with  vast  forests.  Forests  extend  into  Canada,  cover- 
ing a  large  part  of  it,  and  in  fact  they  reach  northward 
for  several  hundred  miles  until  the  climate  becomes  so 
cold  that  trees  can  no  longer  grow. 

19Q 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  UNITED  STATES          191 

New  York  and  Ohio  are  noted  for  their  fruit,  dairying, 
and  farming.  Ontario,  or  that  part  of  Canada  just  north 
of  these  states,  has  the  same  products. 

The  best  wheat  fields  in  the  United  States  are  in  Min- 
nesota and  the  two  Dakotas;  so  Manitoba  is  the  best 
wheat  region  in  Canada.  And  since  the  dry  plains  of 
the  Far  West  also  extend  into  Canada,  cattle  and  sheep 
raising  are  important  industries  on  the  plains  of  western 
Canada,  even  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  western  mountains  of  the  United  States  contain 
much  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals ;  it  is  the  same  with 
the  mountains  of  Canada.  The  Klondike  region  should 
be  remembered  as  a  part  of  Canada,  although  it  was  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Alaska  (see  p.  188). 

•  Since  we  know  the  principal  products,  let  us  locate  the 
chief  lines  of  transportation  and  cities.  Canada,  like  the 
United  States, 
has  a  water- 
route  to  the 
ocean.  This  is 
partly  along  the 
Great  Lakes 
and  partly  along 
the  St.  Law-  pio 

rence  Kiver,  One  The  Lachine  Rapids  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  just  above 

of  the  great  riv-  Montreal.    There  is  one  place  down  which  a  steamer 

„      .  can  come;  but  no  vessel  can  go  up  the  rapids.    Do 

ei'S   OI    the   COn-  you  see  how  t^\s  iias  helped  to  determine  .the  loca- 

tilient;     but    111          tion  of  Montreal  ? 

some  places,  as  at  Niagara,  it  is  necessary  to  pass  for  short 
distances  through  canals.  One  of  the  largest  of  these  is 
the  Welland  Canal,  which  connects  Lakes  Erie  and  On- 
tario. Point  it  out  on  the  map  opposite  p.  167. 


192 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Cities.  —  The  eastern  part  of  Canada  is  most  thickly 
settled,  like  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  for 
the  same  reasons.  What  are  they?  Along  the  water- 
route  just  mentioned  are  some  very  large  cities,  as  in  the 

^s^^^- „„.._     United  States.    The 

largest  is  MONTKE- 
AL,  which  is  nearly 
as  large  as  New  Or- 
leans. Like  that  city, 
Montreal  is  situated 
on  a  river  at  a  point 
where  ocean  vessels 
can  reach  it.  Far- 
ther down  the  St. 
Lawrence  is  the  old 
city  of  QUEBEC, 
founded  many  years 
ago  by  the  French.  OTTAWA,  the  capital,  is  west  of 
Quebec,  on  Ottawa  River,  and  TORONTO  is  across  Lake 
Ontario  from  Niagara  Falls.  Find  all  these  (Fig.  123). 

As  there  is  much  water-power  and  coal  in  eastern  Can- 
ada, there  is  a  great  deal  of  manufacturing  in  the  cities, 
especially  in  Montreal  and  Toronto. 

The  cities  not  on  this  water-route  are  smaller.  HALIFAX,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  has  an  excellent  harbor.  WINNIPEG,  the  main  city  in  the 
wheat  region  of  Manitoba,  is  connected  with  the  Pacific  coast  at  VAN- 
COUVER and  the  Atlantic  at  ST.  JOHN  by  the  great  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  From  Vancouver  and  VICTORIA,  as  from  Seattle,  Tacoma, 
Portland,  and  San  Francisco,  goods  are  shipped  to  Australia  and  Asia. 

The  Far  North.  —  In  the  vast  forests  of  northern  Canada  live 
few  other  people  than  hunters,  trappers,  and  Indians. 

Along  the  northern  coast  are  found  scattered  groups  of  Eskimos, 
who  get  their  living  almost  entirely  from  the  sea.  Their  food  is 


FIG.  170. 

Waterfall  at  Ottawa.  The  city  is  seen  behind 
the  fall.  How  has  the  fall  helped  to  deter- 
mine the  location  of  Ottawa  ? 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  UNITED  STATES 


193 


obtained  from  the  seal,  walrus,  polar  bear,  and  reindeer ;  their  clothes, 
summer  tents,  and  boats  are  made  from  the  skins  of  these  animals; 
and  their  oil  for  light  and  heat 
during  the  long  winter  night 
also  comes  from  them.  Their 
winter  houses  are  snow  huts, 
and  long  journeys  over  the  ice- 
covered  seas  are  made  on  sledges 
drawn  by  wolf-like  dogs. 


ISLANDS   NORTH   OF 
NORTH  AMERICA 

The  islands  north  of  North 

America  are  desolate  lands.     In 

winter  the  sea  is  frozen  ;    and 

even  in  summer  floating  ice  is 

usually  in  sight.     Some  of  the 

ice  is  that  which  has  frozen  on 

the  surface  of  the  sea  during  the 

winter;    but   rising  above  this 

are  many  great  blocks  of  ice,  or 

icebergs,  sometimes  two  hundred 

or  three  hundred  feet  in  height. 

They  have  broken  off  from  the 

streams  of   ice,    called  ylaciers, 

that  move  down  from  the  land  and  enter  the  sea.  The  immense  island 

of  Greenland  is  almost  all 
covered  by  such  glaciers. 
No  land  can  be  seen  except- 
ing near  the  coast,  where 
some  Eskimos  live  and 
a  few  Europeans,  called 
Danes,  from  Denmark. 
The  island  belongs  to  the 
Danes,  who  purchase  skins, 


FIG.  171. 

An  Eskimo  boy  from  Baffin  Land, 
dressed  in  his  summer  furs. 


FIG.  172. 

An  iceberg  from  the  great  Greenland  glacier. 
o 


oil,  etc.,  from  the  Eskimos. 


194 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Show  how  the  products  of  Canada 
correspond  with  those  of  northern  United  States.  (2)  Where  is  the 
St.  Lawrence  River?  Walk  in  the  direction  in  which  it  flows. 
(3)  Where  does  the  water  come  from?  (4)  Through  what  waters 
must  a  vessel  pass  in  going  from  Duluth  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 


FIG.  173. 

Cutting  ice  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  opposite  Montreal.     What  effect 
should  you  think  this  thick  ice  would  have  on  the  commerce  of  Montreal  ? 

and  the  ocean  ?  (5)  Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities  along  this  route. 
(6)  Where  is  the  largest  city?  Why  there?  (7)  Where  is  Ottawa? 
Halifax  ?  (8)  Name  two  cities  on  the  western  coast.  (9)  Tell  about 
the  people  living  in  northern  Canada.  (10)  How  are  icebergs  caused  ? 
(11)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  River, 
putting  in  the  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  What  difficulty  do  you  see  in  building  the 
Welland  Canal?  How  is  it  overcome  ?  (2)  What  difficulties  should 
you  think  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  would  have  in  running  trains 
upon  it  in  winter?  (3)  Why  is  not  Hudson  Bay  an  important  outlet 
for  goods  by  water  from  Canada?  (4)  How  can  you  explain  the 
fact  that  there  are  no  large  cities  along  the  great  Mackenzie  River? 
(5)  Find  out  something  about  Quebec.  (6)  Write  a  story  about 
the  Eskimos.  (7)  Collect  pictures  of  scenes  in  Canada.  (8)  Read 
Longfellow's  poem,  "  Evangeline  " ;  the  land  of  Evangeline  is  in  Nova 
Scotia. 
For  REFERENCES,  see  page  260. 


XVI.    COUNTRIES     SOUTH     OF    THE     UNITED 

STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  What  does  the  map  (Fig.  123,  opposite 
p.  140)  tell  you  about  the  highlands  and  lowlands  in  Mexico  ?  (Notice 
the  rivers.)  (2)  Find  the  capital  of  Mexico.  (3)  Why  is  Central 
America  a  fitting  name  for  the  region  southeast  of  Mexico  ?  (4)  Point 
toward  Cuba.  (5)  How  far  is  Havana  from  Florida?  From  New 
Orleans  ?  (6)  What  large  islands  in  the  West  Indies  ?  In  what  zone 
are  they  ?  (7)  What  large  peninsulas  are  in  Mexico  ? 

Mexico  and  Central  America.  —  As  Canada  is  colder  than 
the  United  States,  so  the  countries  south  of  us  may  be  ex- 
pected to  be  warmer. 
Notice  that  a  large 
part  of  Mexico  is 
south  of  the  tropic 
of  Cancer  and  that 
Central  America  is 
entirely  south  of  it. 

Near    the   seacoast 
of   Mexico   the   land 

FIG.  174. 


is  low  and  the  cli- 
mate hot ;  but  in  the 
interior  are  many 
mountains  and  broad, 
arid  plateaus.  They 
are  a  continuation  of  those  in  Our  Western  states,  and  are 
so  high  that  the  climate  is  cool. 

195 


Popocatepetl,  an  extinct  volcano,  not  far  from 
Mexico  City,  and  one  of  the  highest  moun- 
tain peaks  on  the  continent.  Notice  that 
the  top  is  white  with  snow,  although  in  the 
torrid  zone. 


196 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Some  of  the  highest  mountain  peaks  are  old  volcanoes  made  of  lava 
that  has  poured  forth  from  the  earth.  These  peaks  are  so  high  that 
they  are  always  covered  with  snow,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are 
in  the  torrid  zone. 

With  such  a  variety  of  climate  we  shall  of  course  find  a 
variety  of  products.  Much  of  the  mountain  region  is  too 

cold  and  rocky 
for  farming  ; 
but,  as  in  Col- 
orado, these 
mountains  yield 
valuable  metals, 
especially  sil- 
ver. 

Part  of  the 
Mexican  plateau 
is  dry,  like  west- 
ern Texas  and 
some  of  the 
other  Western 
states.  Name  some  of  them.  Like  these,  its  value  con- 
sists largely  in  wild  grass,  on  which  great  herds  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses  feed.  Of  what  use  are  these  animals  ? 
In  other  parts  of  the  plateau  there  is  enough  rainfall 
for  farming ;  but  in  most  places  crops  can  be  raised  by 
the  aid  of  irrigation  only. 

Along  the  lowlands  of  the  coast,  the  rainfall  is  heavy, 
and  the  products  are  much  the  same  as  on  the  low,  damp 
plains  of  our  own  Southern  states.  What  are  they  ?  (See 
pp.  160  and  162.)  Besides  these,  much  coffee  is  grown  on 
the  slopes  between  the  coastal  plain  and  the  high  plateau. 
Have  we  found  that  product  before  in  North  America  ? 


FIG.  175. 
A  street  in  a  Mexican  town. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  UNITED  STATES  197 

There  is  very  little  manufacturing  in  these  countries,  for  two  rea- 
sons. One  is  that  coal  is  lacking.  Why  is  that  a  good  reason?  The 
other  is  that  many  of  the  people  are  too  ignorant  to  manage  machinery. 

The  Spaniards  once  owned  this  part  of  North  America,  and  their 
language  is  still  spoken  there.  Most  of  the  people  living  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America  are  either  pure  Indians,  or  else  Spaniards  with 
Indian  blood  in  their  veins,  called  half-breeds.  Only  about  one  man 
in  six  is  a  full-blooded  Spaniard. 

Mexico  is  now  a  republic,  like  the  United  States,  and 
its  capital  is  the  city  of  MEXICO.  The  coast  on  the  east 
is  regular,  as  you  can  see,  so  that  there  are  few  harbors. 
VERA  CRUZ  is  the  chief  port,  but  the  harbor  is  poor. 

Central  America  is  made  up  of  several  republics,  each 
having  a  capital  of  its  own.  Many  of  the  people  are  very 
ignorant,  and  there  are  frequent  revolutions  when  ambi- 
tious generals  try  to  overthrow  the  government. 

At  the  present  time  Central  America  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
are  of  interest  because  canals  are  being  dug  there,  to  save  vessels  the 
long  journey  around  South  America.  Examine  the  map  (Fig.  120, 
opposite  p.  137)  to  see  how  much  distance  will  be  saved  in  this  way 
between  New  York  and  San  Francisco.  In  Central  America  are  dense 
tropical  forests  from  which  hard  woods,  dyes,  rubber,  and  other  valua- 
ble products  are  obtained. 

The  West  Indies  and  Bermuda.  — Besides  the  countries  on 
the  mainland  of  the  continent  there  are  numerous  islands, 
some  of  which  form  an  archipelago  called  the  West  Indies. 
They  are  really  the  highest  parts  of  mountain  ranges  pro- 
jecting above  the  sea  and  so  arranged  as  to  separate  the 
Caribbean  Sea  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  from  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  All  of  them  have  a  tropical  climate. 

The  largest  island  is  Cuba,  where  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
tropical  fruits,  such  as  bananas,  are  raised.  HAVANA  is  its 
capital  and  largest  seaport.  Cuba  belonged  to  Spain  until 


198 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


our  recent  war  with  Spain,  and  so  did  Porto  Rico,  which 
now  belongs  to  the  United  States. 

The  other  large  islands  are  Jamaica,  belonging  to  England,  and 

Haiti,  where  there  are  two 
negro  republics.  The  large 
islands  are  called  the  Greater 
Antilles ;  and  the  small  is- 
lands, extending  in  a  chain 
from  near  Porto  Rico  to  the 
South  American  coast,  are 
called  the  Lesser  Antilles. 
These  belong  to  England, 
France,  and  other  European 
nations. 

Off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Florida  are  the  low  Bahama 
Islands ;  and  in  the  open 
Atlantic,  far  to  the  north- 
east of  these,  is  a  tiny  clus- 
ter called  the  Bermuda  Islands.  Both  belong  to  England,  and  are 
made  of  coral  sand,  as  described  on  page  135. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  climate  and  relief  of 
Mexico.  (2)  About  the  industries.  (3)  About  the  inhabitants. 
(4)  What  cities  are  there  ?  (5)  For  what  is  Central  America  espe- 
cially important  at  present?  (6)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  West 
Indies.  (7)  The  Bahamas.  (8)  The  Bermudas. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  reason  can  you  see  for  digging  the  Nica- 
ragua Canal  at  the  place  where  it  is  shown  on  the  map  ?  (2)  Why 
are  there  no  large  rivers  in  Mexico?  (3)  Find  out  about  the  Panama 
Canal.  (4)  Tell  some  of  the  events  that  happened  in  Cuba  during 
our  war  against  Spain.  (5)  Find  out  what  you  can  about  Cuba; 
about  Porto  Rico.  (6)  In  what  time  of  year  would  it  be  best  for 
people  to  visit  these  islands?  (7)  Why  can  potatoes,  onions,  and 
other  vegetables  be  grown  in  Bermuda  so  early  as  to  reach  us  in 
March  ?  (8)  Ask  some  one  who  has  been  to  the  Bermuda  or  Bahama 
Islands  to  tell  you  what  he  saw  there. 

FOR  REFERENCES,  see  p.  260. 


FIG.  176. 

A  field  of  Easter  lilies  in  the  Bermuda  Islands, 
where  these  lilies  are  raised  for  export 
to  the  United  States  at  Easter. 


Longitude    West  HO  from     Greenwich    50 


i    .  —   X^.4—  HK      />  Rio  de 

m"\  ^^vNAl   J     A$  SaoP!lul 


o  de  Janeiro   /     -N 


XVII.    SOUTH   AMERICA 


MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Compare  the  shape  of  South  America 
with  that  of  North  America.  (2)  What  great  mountain  ranges  are 
there  along  the  western  side  ?  (3)  Which  part  of  South  America  has 
no  cold  winter?  (4)  Which  part  has  a  climate  much  like  that  where 
you  live?  (5)  What  is  the  name  of  the  longest  river?  (6)  Where 
do  you  expect  to  find  the  most  fertile  regions  ?  (7)  Name  the  coun- 
tries of  South  America. 


Relief.  —  Great  mountain  chains  were 
western  part  of  North  America.  What  are 
Through  what  countries 
do  they  extend?  In 
South  America  there  are 
also  high  mountains  on 
the  western  side,  called 
the  Andes.  The  peaks 
of  the  Andes  are  higher 
than  those  in  the  United 
States,  and  there  are 
many  active  volcanoes 
among  them  (Fig.  12).  FJG 


found   in   the 
their  names  ? 


Two  tunnels  on  a  railway  line  that  crosses 
the  high  Andes  of  Peru. 


Besides    the    Andes,   the 
map   shows   a  highland   re- 
gion in  eastern  Brazil  and  a  smaller  one  between  the  Amazon  and 
Orinoco  rivers,  forming  the  divide  between  them. 

The  remainder  of  South  America  is  mainly  lowland,  drained  by 
three  mighty  rivers.  What  are  their  names?  Where  does  each  rise? 
In  what  direction  does  each  flow  ?  Which  drains  the  longest  slope  ? 

199 


200  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Climate.  —  The  products  of  the  three  valleys  greatly 
depend  upon  their  climate  ;  let  us,  therefore,  see  how 
much  heat  and  moisture  they  have. 

Where  does  the  equator  cross  the  continent  ?  Where 
does  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  cross  it  ?  How  much  of 
the  continent,  then,  is  in  the  torrid  zone  ?  Where  is  the 
coldest  part  ?  In  which  zone  ? 

From  this  we  see  that  much  more  than  half  the 
continent  must  have  a  warm  climate  ;  but  that  the  south- 
ern part  has  a  temperate  climate  more  like  our  own.  In 
which  months  does  summer  come  to  this  region  ? 

As  for  the  moisture  in  the  torrid  or  tropical  part  of 
South  America  the  rains  are  very  heavy.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the  air  becomes  heated  and  is  thus  made 
very  light ;  it  is  then  forced  to  rise  to  such  a  height  that 
the  vapor  is  condensed,  causing  heavy  showers.  (See 
p.  77.) 

There  is  less  rainfall  in  the  south  temperate  zone,  and 
still  less  in  the  narrow  strip  west  of  the  central  part  of 
the  Andes,  in  Chile  and  Peru.  There  the  climate  is  quite 
arid  because  the  principal  winds  are  from  the  east,  so 
that  the  air  loses  its  vapor  in  passing  over  the  mountains 
and  descends  upon  the  Pacific  slope  as  dry,  parching 
winds. 

History.  —  Knowing  now  the  chief  facts  about  the 
relief  and  climate,  let  us  look  at  the  countries  themselves. 
After  the  discovery  of  South  America  by  Columbus  the 
Spaniards  settled  in  many  parts,  obtaining  great  quanti- 
ties of  gold  and  silver,  especially  in  the  Andes.  Nearly 
all  of  South  America  once  belonged  to  Spain,  excepting 
Brazil,  which  was  settled  and  for  a  long  time  owned 
by  the  Portuguese.  Although  these  countries  are  now 


SOUTH  AMERICA  201 

independent  nations,  the  Spanish  language  is  still  spoken 
there. 

Brazil.  —  This  is  the  largest  country,  being  even  larger 
than  the  United  States  without  Alaska ;  but  it  has  only 
about  one-third  as  many  inhabitants.  Much  of  the 
great  Amazon  valley  consists  of  forest-covered  plains, 
called  silvas,  in  which  the  trees  are  so  close  together,  and 
there  is  such  a  mat  of  vines  and  underbrush,  that  it  is 


FIG.  179. 
A  path  through  the  dense  tropical  forest  of  South  America. 

extremely  difficult  for  one  to  make  his  way  through. 
From  what  was  just  said  about  the  climate,  you  may  be 
able  to  give  the  reason  for  such  rank  growth. 

You  will  find  pictures  of  some  of  the  wild  forest 
animals  in  Figure  108,  page  130.  What  are  their 
names  ? 

Of  course  this  forest  is  not  a  good  home  for  men, 
especially  since  much  of  the  land  is  frequently  flooded ; 


202  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

in  fact,  Indians  are  almost  the  only  people  living  there. 
They  make  a  living  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  selling  rub- 
ber from  the  rubber  tree  that  grows  in  the  woods. 

Rubber  is  obtained  by  cutting  a  hole  in  the  bark  and 
catching  the  milky  fluid  that  flows  forth.  After  being 
warmed  over  a  fire  to  make  it  more  solid,  it  is  sent  down  the 
river  in  boats  to  PABA  and  then  shipped  to  many  parts  of 
the  world.  Bicycle  tires  and  overshoes  are  made  from  it. 
See  how  long  a  list  of  other  rubber  articles  you  can  name. 

Another  common  tree  is  the  cocoa  tree,  on  which  grow 
the  beans  from  which  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  made.  The 
rivers  are  almost  the  only  roadways  in  this  great  section, 
so  that  it  is  mainly  a  great  wilderness. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  live  in  the  eastern 
part  along  the  coast.  Some  of  them  are  white  people, 
but  many  are  either  Indians  or  negroes,  or  of  mixed 
blood,  as  in  Mexico.  You  will  notice  several  cities  on 
the  coast,  of  which  Rio  BE  JANEIRO,  the  capital,  is  the 
largest,  being  about  twice  the  size  of  New  Orleans.  It 
has  a  splendid  harbor. 

There  must  certainly  be  some  important  industries  in 
this  region  to  cause  a  city  to  become  so  large.  Besides 
the  raising  of  cattle  upon  the  plateau  of  eastern  Brazil, 
farming  is  an  important  industry  there.  The  principal 
crops  are  the  same  as  those  already  found  in  warm  coun- 
tries: namely,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  coffee.  The 
last  is  most  important,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  the  chief 
export  town,  which  is  the  reason  why  some  of  our  coffee 
is  called  Rio  coffee. 

Venezuela  and  Guiana.  —  North  of  Brazil  is  Venezuela, 
which  includes  most  of  the  Orinoco  valley.  Here  are 
broad  plains,  called  llanos,  which  produce  excellent  grass, 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


203 


FIG.  180. 

Native  Indian  women  washing  clothes  in  Vene- 
zuela. Do  you  see  in  the  picture  any  reason 
for  thinking  it  is  warm  there  ? 


so  that  cattle  raising  is  one  of  the  important  industries. 

Coffee    and    cocoa 

are     also     raised. 

The     capital    and 

largest      city      is 

CARACAS,     which 

is   located  several 

miles      from      the 

coast     upon    land 

more  than  half    a 

mile  above  the  sea. 

What     advantage 

do  you  see  in  such 

a  position? 

Just  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River  is  Trini- 
dad Island,  which  belongs  to  Great  Britain.  On  that 
island  is  a  great  pitch  lake,  from  which  much  of  the 
asphalt  used  in  our  street  pavements  is  obtained. 

All  of  the  countries  of  South  America  are  republics 
excepting  Guiana,  east  of  Venezuela,  which  belongs  to 
three  European  nations.  What  are  their  names  ?  And 
what  is  the  capital  of  each  section  of  Guiana  ?  The  prod- 
ucts of  these  countries  are  much  the  same  as  those  of 
Brazil  and  Venezuela. 

La  Plata  Countries.  —  The  country  south  of  Brazil, 
drained  by  the  Plata  River  and  its  tributaries,  is  one 
of  the  most  productive  parts  of  South  America.  Here, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Plata  River  in  Argentina,  is  BUENOS 
AIRES,  the  largest  city  on  the  continent.  Across  the 
wide  river  mouth  is  MONTEVIDEO,  another  large  city, 
in  Uruguay.  What  other  small  country  lies  between 
Argentina  and  Brazil? 


204 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The.  plains  in  this  section  of  the  country  are  called 
pampas;  and  because  of  their  excellent  grass  one  of  the 
chief  industries  is  ranching.  Since  most  of  the  country 
is  in  the  temperate  zone,  corn  and  wheat  are  important 
farm  products ;  and  in  the  warm  northern  part,  near  the 
tropics,  tobacco  and  sugar-cane  are  raised.  This  is  the 
part  of  South  America  that  most  nearly  corresponds  in 
climate  and  products  to  the  United  States. 


FIG.  181. 
A  scene  on  the  pampas  of  Argentina. 

Goods  are  still  carried  upon  the  rivers  in  Argentina, 
but  there  are  also  many  railways  in  that  country,  more,  in 
fact,  than  in  any  other  part  of  South  America. 

Andean  Countries. — The  countries  in  the  western  part 
of  South  America  are  very  mountainous,  since  each  of 
them  includes  a  part  of  the  Andean  chain.  As  you  might 
expect,  then,  one  of  the  principal  industries  is  mining ; 
and  immense  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  have  been 
found  there.  What  are  the  names  of  these  countries  ? 

Observe  that  most  of  the  cities  are  not  upon  the  coast. 
This  is  partly  because  they  have  grown  up  in  the  mining 


SOUTH  AMERICA  205 

districts  among  the  mountains,  and  partly  because  there 
are  so  few  good  harbors.  Many  of  the  interior  cities  have 
seaports,  as  CALLAO  in  Peru,  the  seaport  of  LIMA.  Find 
others. 

VALPARAISO,  in  Chile,  is  the  largest  port  on  the  Pacific 
coast ;  but  SANTIAGO,  the  capital,  situated  fifty  miles  in- 
land, and  about  one-half  mile  above  the  sea,  is  more  than 
twice  as  large.  Notice  how  long  and  narrow  Chile  is ; 
what  reason  can  you  give  for  that  ? 


FIG.  182. 
A  scene  among  the  lofty,  snow-capped  mountains  of  Chile. 

Farming  is  possible  in  the  northern  part  of  the  western 
coast,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy ;  but  farther  south,  as 
in  Peru  and  northern  Chile,  agriculture  is  impossible  with- 
out irrigation.  In  southern  Chile,  however,  the  rainfall 
is  moderate,  and  many  people  have  settled  there  because 
the  farming  and  grazing  are  excellent. 

Which  of  the  Andean  countries  has  no  seacoast  ?  Is 
that  any  disadvantage  ?  One  country  is  called  Ecuador, 
which  is  the  Spanish  word  for  equator.  Why  is  that  a 
fitting  name  ?  Notice  that  Colombia  has  seacoast  on  the 
two  oceans  and  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  What 


206  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

cities  do  you  find  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Isthmus  ?    They 
are  connected  by  a  railway.     Why  is  this  important  ? 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Describe  the  highland  regions  of  South 
America.  (2)  What  three  great  valleys  are  there?  (3)  In  what 
zones  are  the  different  parts  of  the  continent  ?  (4)  Which  is  the  rainiest 
region?  Why?  (5)  What  about  the  rainfall  elsewhere ?  (6)  Com- 
pare Brazil  with  the  United  States  in  size  and  number  of  inhabitants. 
(7)  Tell  about  the  silvas  and  the  valuable  products  obtained  from 
them."  (8)  Where  are  the  chief  cities  in  Brazil?  Which  is  the  largest? 
(9)  Name  the  main  industries  in  that  section.  (10)  Where  is  Vene- 
zuela. (11)  Tell  about  the  industries  there.  (12)  Where  is  Cara- 
cas? (13)  For  what  is  Trinidad  noted?  (14)  Which  is  the  most 
productive  part  of  South  America?  What  are  the  products? 
(15)  Name  and  locate  the  largest  city  on  the  continent.  (16)  Name 
the  countries  along  the  western  side  of  South  America.  (17)  Why 
are  most  of  the  cities  not  directly  on  the  coast?  (18)  Which  is  the 
largest  port?  (19)  What  are  the  products  of  these  countries? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  outline  of  South  America.  Put  in 
the  drawing  the  mountains,  chief  rivers,  and  cities.  Add  the  country 
boundaries.  (2)  Make  a  sand  model  of  the  continent,  showing  the 
highlands  and  lowlands.  (3)  What  large  cities  were  found  in  the 
interior  of  North  America?  How  about  South  America  in  that 
respect?  What  are  the  causes  for  the  difference?  (4)  Brazil  is  in 
the  torrid  zone,  while  the  United  States  is  in  the  temperate  zone. 
Which  country  has  the  advantage  in  temperature  ?  Why  ?  (5)  Write 
a  story  telling  of  a  journey  by  land  and  river  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco  to  the  mouth  of  the  Plata.  (6)  Find  some  pictures  from 
South  America  and  add  them  to  the  school  collection.  (7)  Read 
something  about  coffee  raising.  Read  about  Pizarro.  About  Boli- 
var. (8)  From  the  table  on  page  268  find  the  five  largest  cities  in 
South  America.  Add  the  populations  together  and  compare  the  result 
with  the  total  of  the  five  largest  cities  in  North  America  (see  p. 
264).  (9)  The  Hartford  Tire  Company,  Hartford,  Mass.,  issues  a 
pamphlet  with  illustrations  of  rubber  making.  You  could  probably 
obtain  one  if  you  wrote  for  it. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  260. 


EUROPE 

Scale  of  Miles, 


FIG. 


XVIII.    EUROPE 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  On  page  131  it  was  stated  that  Eurasia  con- 
sisted of  two  continents,  Europe  and  Asia.  Trace  the  boundary  line 
between  them,  naming  the  mountains  and  waters  that  form  it. 
(2)  One  of  the  seas  has  no  outlet;  which  one  is  it?  What  kind  of 
water  would  you  expect  to  find  in  that  sea?  (3)  How  does  the  coast 
line  of  Europe  compare  with  that  of  South  America?  Of  North 
America?  (4)  Would  you  expect  to  find  many  good  harbors? 
(5)  Name  the  largest  peninsulas  and  draw  an  outline  map  to  show 
them.  (6)  Where  are  the  highest  mountains?  (7)  One  of  the 
Alpine  peaks  is  Mt.  Blanc.  What  have  you  already  learned  about 
it?  (See  p.  21.)  (8)  Where  are  the  plains?  Which  very  large 
country  is  made  up  mainly  of  plains?  Find  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 
(9)  In  what  zones  is  Europe?  (10)  How  do  you  think  its  climate 
would  compare  with  that  of  the  United  States?  (11)  With  which 
of  these  countries  have  we  recently  been  at  war?  (12)  What  other 
countries  in  Europe  do  you  know  something  about?  (13)  By  what 
route  would  you  go  from  New  York  to  one  of  them?  (See  Fig.  120.) 

Europe  is  only  a  little  larger  than  the  United  States 
with  Alaska,  but  contains  more  than  five  times  as  many 
inhabitants,  who  .are  separated  into  a  score  of  nations 
with  a  different  language  for  nearly  every  one. 

I.  The  British  Isles.  —  The  people  in  Europe  to  whom 
we  are  most  closely  related  live  on  the  small  group  of 
islands,  called  the  BRITISH  ISLES,  which  lie  just  west  of 
the  mainland.  This  is  often  called  our  "  mother  coun- 
try." Can  you  tell  why  ? 

There  are  two  islands,  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  ;  what 
are  the  names  of  the  three  parts  of  Great  Britain  ? 

207 


208 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


On  these  islands  are  fine  harbors  and  many  great  cities, 
LONDON,  in  the  southern  part  of  England,  on  the  Thames 
River,  being  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  Let  us  see 
what  the  people  do. 

Judging  from  their  position  one  might  expect  these  islands  to  be 
too  cold  for  agriculture,  for  they  are  farther  north  than  the  mouth  of 

the  St.  Lawrence 
River;  but  the  cli- 
mate is  no  colder 
than  that  of  the 
northern  United 
States.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the 
western  coast  of 
Europe  is  warmed 
by  a  broad  cur- 
rent, or  drift,  of 
warm  ocean 
water,  known  as 
the  Gulf  Stream, 
which  flows  north- 


FIG.  184. 


London  bridge,  across  the  Thames,  over  which  a  busy 
throng  is  almost  constantly  passing. 

east  in  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  from  the  warm  southern  seas.  The  air  over  it  becomes 
warmed  ;  and,  since  the  winds  of  Europe  blow  chiefly  from  the  west, 
they  carry  this  warmth  with  them  and  produce  a  climate  much  milder 
than  one  would  otherwise  expect. 

Wales  and  most  of  Scotland  are  too  hilly  to  be  well 
suited  to  agriculture  ;  but  many  sheep  and  cattle  are 
raised.  In  England  there  is  much  more  farming,  and  hay 
is  one  of  the  chief  crops,  since  the  damp  air  and  the  rain 
cause  the  grass  to  grow  well.  This  is  a  reason,  also,  why 
sheep  are  raised  in  great  numbers. 

But  agriculture  and  stock  raising  are  not  the  chief  oc- 
cupations. Having  much  wool,  the  people  long  ago 


EUROPE  209 

learned  to  make  woollen  cloth.  In  addition  to  that,  they 
purchased  cotton  from  distant  countries,  —  as  New  Eng- 
land does  to-day  from  the  Southern  states,  —  and  made  cot- 
ton goods.  Thus  extensive  manufacturing  industries  have 
been  developed,  which  have  been  made  possible  because  of 
the  vast  beds  of  coal  found  there,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  Illi- 
nois, and  neighboring  states. 

The  centre  for  this  manufacturing  is  MANCHESTER,  and 
the  nearest  port  is  LIVERPOOL,  thirty-five  miles  away. 
Recently  a  ship  canal,  called  the  Manchester  Canal,  has 
been  built,  connecting  these  two  cities.  Find  them. 

The  coal  has  helped  to  make  another  great  industry 
possible.  Beds  of  iron  ore  occur  in  England,  and  by 
the  use  of  coal  it  is  made  into  iron  and  steel,  especially 
at  BIRMINGHAM,  which  is  the  greatest  centre  for  iron 
manufacturing  in  Great  Britain.  Where  else  have  we 
found  a  city  called  Birmingham  ?  What  can  you  tell 
about  it  ? 

The  lowland  portion  of  Scotland,  about  EDINBURGH 
and  GLASGOW,  is  likewise  noted  for  its  cotton  and  wool- 
len factories,  and  for  its  iron  manufacturing.  Glasgow 
is  the  greatest  centre  for  steel  shipbuilding  in  the  world. 
What  city  in  the  United  States  is  noted  for  shipbuild- 
ing? 

Great  numbers  of  people  are  employed  in  all  this  work, 
so  that  enough  cloth,  knives,  needles,  engines,  and  so  forth 
are  made  to  supply  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Ireland  is  not  so  much  interested  in  manufacturing,  al- 
though linen  is  an  important  product,  being  manufactured 
especially  at  BELFAST.  It  is  really  to  a  great  extent  a 
farm  for  the  English,  furnishing  them  butter,  eggs,  pota- 
toes, and  also  meat.  The  air  is  so  moist  that  the  grass 
p 


210 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


is  kept  fresh  and  green,  and  on  that  account  Ireland  is 
often  called  the  Emerald  (or  Green)  Isle.     The  two  largest 

cities  are  naturally 
on  the  side  next  to 
England.  What  are 
their  names  ? 

So  many  manu- 
factured goods  must 
be  shipped  away 
from  Great  Britain, 
and  so  much  food 
imported,  that  the 
shipping  business  is 
very  important.  For 
this  reason  there  are 
many  skilful  sailors 


FIG.  185. 
Thatched  cottages  in  Ireland. 

in  Great  Britain,  and  that  nation  has  more  ships  upon  the 
sea  than  any  other  in  the  world. 


Having  so  many  ships,  the  British  have  been  led  to  explore  coun- 
tries in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Whenever  they  discovered  new  lands, 
they  laid  claim  to  them  in  the  name  of  their  government,  and  in  that 
way  England  has  come  into  possession  of  Canada,  Australia,  and  a 
large  part  of  Africa,  and  scores  of  islands  besides.  These  are  called 
colonies,  and  the  British  have  more  colonies  than  any  other  .nation  in 
the  world.  Indeed,  these  colonies  cover  one  hundred  times  as  much 
surface  as  the  British  Isles  and  have  ten  times  as  many  inhabitants. 

LONDON,  the  capital  and  the  central  port  for  vessels, 
has  an  excellent  harbor  on  the  Thames  River,  where  hun- 
dreds of  ships  can  be  accommodated  at  one  time. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  together  with  their  many 
colonies,  form  the  British  JZmpire.  Its  government,  un- 
like our  own,  is  a  monarchy  ;  but  it  is  very  liberal,  and 


EUROPE  211 

as  in  our  own  country,  the  people  have  an  important  share 
in  the  making  of  laws. 

II.  Norse  Countries.  —  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  These 
two  countries  together  occupy  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
and  are  about  as  far  north  as  southern  Greenland.  Were 
it  not  for  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  past  Norway,  this, 
like  Greenland,  might  be  a  barren,  frozen  country.  As  it 
is,  however,  many  people  live  there. 


FIG.  186. 
The  Thames  River  and  Windsor  Castle,  where  the  Queen  of  England  resides. 

As  in  Scotland,  most  of  the  country  is  too  hilly  and 
rocky  for  farming,  although  some  grain,  cattle,  and  sheep 
are  raised,  especially  on  the  lower  land  of  southern  Sweden 
along  the  Baltic.  Few  people  live  in  the  highlands,  and 
about  one  fourth  of  Norway  is  covered  by  forests. 

The  coast  is  very  irregular,  and  many  deep,  narrow  bays,  or  fjords, 
reach  into  the  land,  making  fine  harbors.  As  a  result,  Norwegians 
and  Swedes  are  skilful  sailors.  In  the  early  days  these  Northmen 
were  the  best  sailors  in  the  world,  and  they  came  to  the  American 
shores  long  before  Columbus  discovered  America.  Fishing  for  cod 
and  herring  is  now  one  of  their  important  industries. 


212 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  principal  cities  are  STOCKHOLM  and  CHRISTIANIA. 
Find  each.     They  are  the  capitals  of  Sweden  and  Norway, 

but  the  entire  peninsula 
is  ruled  by  one  king, 
the  government  being  a 
monarchy. 

DENMARK,  just  south 
of  Norway  and  Sweden, 
is  inhabited  by  people 
similar  to  those  in  Scan- 
dinavia ;  in  fact,  these 
three  are  often  called 
FIG.  187.  the  Worse  nations,  or  the 

One  of  the  deep,  narrow  fjords  of  Norway.       nations  of  the  Northmen . 

The  Danes,  also,  have  been  great  sailors,  and  now  have  possession 
of  Iceland  and  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  Their  country  presents 
a  very  different  appearance  from  Norway  and  Sweden,  for  the  land  is 
low  and  level,  and  farm- 
ing is  the  occupation  of 
about  one-half  the  peo- 
ple. Fishing  is  also  an 
important  industry. 

The  government 
is  a  monarchy,  the 
capital  and  largest 
city  being  COPEN- 
HAGEN, situated  on 
an  island. 

III.  Russia.— The 
Russian  Empire  not 
only  includes  great  plains  in  Europe,  but  extends  sev- 
eral thousand  miles  beyond  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the 


FIG.  188. 
Danish  women  selling  fish. 


EUROPE  213 

eastern  coast  of  Asia  ;  it  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of 
North  America  and  contains  a  greater  number  of  inhab- 
itants. 

Most  of  Russia  in  Europe  is  a  level  country.  The  northern  part, 
like  northern  Norway,  is  in  the  frigid  zone,  and  so  far  away  from  the 
Gulf  Stream  that  the  climate  is  extremely  cold.  The  plains  there, 
called  tundras,  are  too  cold  for  trees,  and  the  frost  never  leaves  the 
ground  except  at  the  very  surface  in  summer.  Nevertheless,  a  moss 
flourishes  and  supports  numbers  of  reindeer,  which  are  used  as  draft 
animals  by  the  natives. 

The  southeastern  plains,  called  steppes,  are  so  far  from 
the  ocean  that  the  west  winds  can  bring  them  little  rain. 
They  are  therefore  dry  like  the  arid  region  in  our  West- 
ern States.  But  the  central  and  western  parts  are  well 
suited  to  farming,  and  there  most  of  the  people  live.  As 
in  the  northern  United  States,  one  of  their  main  crops  is 
grain,  especially  wheat ;  and  vast  numbers  of  cattle  and 
sheep  roam  over  the  broad,  grassy  steppes. 

The  rivers  are  excellent  waterways,  the  largest  of  all 
being  the  Volga,  the  greatest  river  in  Europe.  What 
others  do  you  find  ? 

Since  the  Caspian  Sea  has  no  outlet,  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean  on  the  north  side  is  frozen  much  of  the  time,  the 
chief  ports  for  foreign  commerce  must  be  either  on  the 
Baltic  or  the  Black  Sea.  This  explains  the  location  of 
ST.  PETERSBURG,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  which  is 
about  the  size  of  Philadelphia.  ODESSA,  on  the  Black 
Sea,  contains  many  flour-mills  and  is  an  important  port 
for  the  export  of  wheat.  With  what  two  cities  northwest 
of  Chicago  may  it  be  compared? 

The,  chief  railway  centre  is  Moscow  in  the  interior, 
which  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  Boston. 


214 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  great  mass  of  the  people,  called  peasants,  are  not  allowed  to 
take  any  part  in  the  government,  and,  unlike  most  of  the  Euro- 
peans, are  kept  in 
ignorance  and  sub- 
jection. They  are 
ruled  by  a  man 
called  the  Czar, 
who  makes  and  ex- 
ecutes laws  very 
much  as  he  pleases. 
That  kind  of  gov- 
ernment is  called 
an  absolute  mon- 
archy, or  despot- 
ism, and  is  very 
different  from  the 
limited  monarchies 
thus  far  studied. 


FIG.  189. 
A  family  of  Russian  peasants. 


IV.  Germany.  —  The  general  slope  of  the  land  in  Ger- 
many is  shown  by  the  rivers ;  in  what  direction  do  most 
of  them  flow?  The  southern  part  of  the  country  consists 
of  mountains  and  highlands,  but  the  northern  part  is  a 
great  plain,  a  continuation  of  the  plains  of  Russia. 

As  in  Russia,  there  is  much  agriculture,  one  of  the 
chief  products  being  grain.  Much  of  their  bread  is  made 
from  a  grain  called  rye,  and  is  so  dark  that  it  is  called 
"black  bread."  Beets  are  grown  in  enormous  quantities, 
and  sugar  is  manufactured  from  them  as  it  is  from  sugar- 
cane in  Louisiana.  Grapes  flourish  along  the  upper  Rhine 
River,  and  from  these  wine  is  made  ;  and  more  hops  for 
making  beer  are  raised  in  Germany  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  world. 

Both  coal  and  iron  ore  are  mined  in  abundance ;  and  many 
articles  are  manufactured,  such  as  the  famous  Krupp  guns 


EUROPE 


215 


and  many  kinds  of  machinery.    Germany  is  noted  also  for 
its  manufacture  of  cotton,  woollen  and  linen  goods,  ranking 

next  to  England  as      

a  manufacturing 
country  of  Europe. 
The  chief  seaport 
is  HAMBURG  on  the 
Elbe  River,  a  city  al- 
most the  size  of  St. 
Louis.  Why  should 
the  chief  port  be  at 
this  point  rather 
than  farther  east  on 
the  Baltic  Sea?  A 
ship  canal  has  re- 
cently been  dug  FlG-  19°- 
across  the  peninsula 
south  of  Denmark.  What  are  the  advantages  from  it  ? 


FIG.  191. 
The  Royal  Museum  at  Berlin. 


The  schools,  universities,  and  museums  of  Germany  are  among  the 
best  that  exist,  and  many  Americans  go  to  Germany  each  year  to 


216 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


study  music,  painting,  and  other  subjects.  The  largest  university  is 
in  BERLIN;  LEIPZIG  also  has  one,  and  there  are  many  others.  MU- 
NICH and  DRESDEN  are  noted  for  their  fine  picture  galleries,  and  so  is 
BERLIN,  which  also  has  other  large  museums.  Find  these  cities. 

BERLIN,  the  capital  of  Germany,  is  the  largest  city. 
The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the  present 
ruler  is  Emperor  William  II. 

V.  Holland,  or  the  Netherlands  (a  word  that  means 
lowlands),  is  a  low,  flat  country,  much  of  it  being  lower 

than  the  neighbor- 
ing sea. 

The  inhabitants 
have  built  embank- 
ments, called  dykes,  to 
keep  the  sea  out,  and 
have  dug  canals  across 
the  country  to  drain 
it.  The  water  that 
collects  inside  the  em- 
bankments is  pumped 
out  by  windmills,  or 
by  steam,  into  the 
canals,  and  these  ca- 
nals are  the  chief 
roads,  being  used  in 
summer  by  boats  and  in  winter  by  people  on  skates  or  on  sleds. 

The  damp  soil  furnishes  excellent  grass,  so  that  cattle  raising  and 
dairying  are  the  principal  occupations. 

The  Hollanders,  or  Dutchmen,  living  so  near  the  sea,  have  become 
great  sailors  and  explorers,  like  the  Englishmen.  For  this  reason 
they  have  come  into  possession  of  some  of  the  richest  islands  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  which  are  obtained  valuable  products,  such  as 
coffee,  spices,  and  precious  stones.  On  the  map,  Figure  221,  facing 
page  250,  find  the  names  of  some  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Find 
out  about  the  early  Dutch  settlements  in  America.  What  great  city 
did  they  settle  V 


FIG.  192. 
A  canal  in  Holland. 


EUROPE 


217 


The  chief  city  is  AMSTERDAM,  which  is  about  the  size 
of  Boston.  The  government  is  a  monarchy,  and  the  laws 
are  made  at  THE  HAGUE,  on  the  coast. 

VI.  Belgium,  like  Holland,  has  some  land  that  is  lower 
than  the  sea  and   protected   by  dykes ;   but  the  eastern 
part  is  much  higher. 

The  people  are  crowded 
together  more  closely  than 
in  any  other  country  of  Eu- 
rope. Many  live  on  farms  and 
raise  much  the  same  prod- 
ucts as  those  of  Holland  and 
Germany.  What  are  these  ? 

Flax  is  an  important  farm  prod- 
uct. It  is  a  plant  about  two  feet 
high,  whose  fibre  is  used  in  mak- 
ing linen  and  fine  laces.  The  Bel- 
gians have  long  been  skilful  in 
such  work,  and  it  was  from  them 
that  the  English  received  some  of 
their  knowledge  about  manufac- 
turing. BRUSSELS,  the  largest  city,  is  famous  for  its  fine  laces,  linens, 
and  Brussels  carpets,  the  latter  being  made  of  wool  on  a  mat  of  linen. 

There  is  a  great  amount  of  coal  and  iron  in  this  little 
kingdom,  so  that  the  iron  industry  is  extensive,  as  in 
Germany. 

The  government  is  a  monarchy  with  BRUSSELS  for  its 
capital.  ANTWERP  is  the  chief  seaport. 

VII.  France.  —  The  slope  of  the  land  in  France  you  see 
by   the   course   of   its   rivers.     What   are   their   names  ? 
Where  do  they  rise  and  in  what  direction  do  they  flow? 

In  the  cool  northern  part  the  crops  are  similar  to 
those  of  Germany ;  but  in  the  southern  portion  the 


FIG.  193. 

A  windmill,  in  Belgium,  like  those 
so  common  in  Holland. 


218 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


climate  is  warmer  and  the  crops  somewhat  different. 
Besides  grapes,  which  are  grown  in  great  quantities  in 
the  region  of  BORDEAUX,  and  made  into  wine  that  is  sold 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  much  silk  is  also  produced. 

Silk  is  manufactured  from  cocoons  spun  by  a  caterpillar  called  the 
silkworm.  Each  one  of  the  cocoons  is  made  of  a  fine  thread  several 
thousand  yards  long,  looking  somewhat  like  the  thread  of  a  spider's 
web. 

After  the  cocoons  have  been  softened  in  hot  water  the  threads  are 
unwound  and  then  wound  upon  spools.  They  are  later  made  into 
thread  and  woven  into  silk  cloth,  ribbons,  handkerchiefs,  and  other 
silk  goods. 

Much  depends  upon  the  proper  care  of  the  silkworm.  Their 
principal  food  is  the  leaf  of  the  mulberry  tree,  which  is  planted  in 
great  groves  in  the  Rhone  Valley,  in  southern  France.  The  leaves 
are  plucked  and  fed  to  the  worms. 

LYON,  the  centre  for  the  silk  industry,  and  the  great- 
est silk  market  in  the  world,  is  next  to  the  largest 

city  in  France. 

PARIS,  the  larg- 
est city  in  France, 
is  the  third  in 
size  in  the  world, 
and  probably  the 
most  beautiful. 
Like  several  cities 
in  Germany,  it 


has    fine   picture 
galleries  and  mu- 


FIG.  194. 
A  view  of  the  great  city  of  Paris. 

seums,  and  many  foreigners  go  there  to  study  painting, 
music,  and  other  subjects.  It  is  situated  upon  the  Seine 
River,  and  its  chief  port  is  HAVRE,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Seine. 


EUROPE 


219 


FIG.  195. 
The  harbor  of  Marseille. 


BORDEAUX,  already  mentioned,  is  an  important  ship- 
ping port  for  wine,  and  MARSEILLE  the  principal  port  upon 
the  Mediter- 
ranean coast. 
From  these 
three  harbors 
France  ships 
goods  to  and 
from  her  sev- 
eral colonies 
and  other  coun- 
tries. 

The  French 

government  was  formerly  a  monarchy,  but  is  now  a  re- 
public with  PARIS  as  its  capital. 

VIII.  Spain  and  Portugal.  —  The  Pyrenees  Mountains 
form  the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain,  rising  like 
a  great  wall  to  separate  the  two  countries. 

You  remember  that  Magellan  was  a  Portuguese  and  that 
it  was  to  Spain  that  Columbus  went  for  help.  These 
were  once  among  the  most  powerful  nations  in  the  world, 
and  they  once  ruled  much  of  North  America  and  most  of 
South  America.  Little  by  little  they  have  lost  their  colo- 
nies in  the  New  World,  the  last  to  be  taken  being  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico. 

Like  Mexico,  which  was  settled  and  for  a  long  time 
owned  by  the  Spanish,  Spain  has  a  dry,  mountainous 
plateau  or  table-land  in  the  interior,  with  low  land  along 
the  coast. 

Being  so  much  like  a  desert,  one  would  expect  few 
people  to  make  their  homes  in  the  interior  ;  and  this  is 
the  case,  although,  strange  to  say,  the  greatest  city, 


220 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  196. 

A  view  of  a  part  of  Madrid  and  the  great  plateau 
on  which  it  is  situated. 


MADRID,  is  found  in  the  centre  of  this  table-land.    Its  im- 
portance is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  capital  of  Spain. 

As  upon  our  dry 
Western  plains 
and  plateaus,  cat- 
tle and  sheep  rais- 
ing are  important 
industries  on  this 
highland.  But 
the  rocks  of  this 
region  contain  its 
chief  wealth,  for 
Spain  produces 
more  quicksilver  and  lead  than  any  other  nation,  and  more 
copper  and  iron  than  most  others. 

There  is  considerable  farming  in  the  mountain  valleys  and  on  the 
low  lands  along  the  coast.  One  of  the  most  valuable  crops  is  grapes ; 
you  have  doubtless  seen  Malaga  grapes,  named  from  the  city  of 
MALAGA  on  the  southern  coast.  Many  grapes  are  made  into  wine ; 
others  are  dried  to  make  raisins.  Other  fruits  grown  here  are  olives, 
lemons,  oranges,  and  figs ;  besides  this  much  cork  is  obtained  from 
the  bark  of  the  cork  oak. 

BARCELONA,  on  the  eastern  side,  ^s  the  chief  port  of 
Spain  ;  and  the  principal  city  of  Portugal  is  LISBON,  the 
capital. 

Both  governments  are  limited  monarchies,  like  those 
of  most  European  countries. 

IX.  Italy  was  once  the  most  powerful  country  in  the 
world.  Its  principal  city  was  ROME,  and  the  Romans 
ruled  nearly  all  the  other  countries  then  known.  But, 
like  Spain,  it  has  lost  much  of  its  importance. 

ROME  is  still  the  capital  and  the  residence  of  the  king ; 


EUROPE 


221 


also  of  the 
Pope,  who  is 
the  head  of  the 
Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. 
The  city  is  es- 
pecially noted 
for  its  many 
ruins  of  build- 
ings erected 
hundreds  of 
years  ago. 


FIG.  197. 

St.  Peter's  Cathedral  on  the  left,  and  the  Vatican,  the 
residence  of  the  Pope,  on  the  right. 


VENICE,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  is  another  interesting 
city.  It  is  built  upon  many  islands  joined  by  hundreds  of  bridges, 
and  its  chief  streets  are  canals,  where  boats,  called  gondolas,  are  used 
in  place  of  wagons  and  carriages. 


FIG.  198. 
One  of  the  canals  of  Venice  with  a  gondola  floating  upon  it. 

NAPLES,  which  is  on  the  coast  southeast  of  Rome,  and 
near  Mt.  Vesuvius,  is  the  largest  city  in  Italy.    The  steam 


222 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


rising  from  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  is  easily  seen  from  the 
city  (Fig.  102).  Volcanic  ash  from  Mt.  Vesuvius  has  en- 
tirely buried  some  of  the  towns  near  by,  such  as  the  ancient 
city  of  Pompeii,  from  which  the  ashes  have  been  dug  away 
so  as  to  bring  to  light  the  buried  buildings  and  streets. 

The  best  farm  land  is  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  River  in  the  northern 
part,  where  wheat,  and  other  grains,  and  mulberry  trees  for  silk- 
worms are  raised.  MILAN,  like  Lyon  in  France,  is  a  great  centre  for 
silk. 

The  climate  is  mild  enough  to  produce  the  same  fruits  that  are 
grown  in  Florida  and  Southern  California.  Name  some  of  them. 


X.  Switzerland. 
—  Any  one  who  has 
heard  the  story  of 
William  Tell,  or 
who  has  read  about 
the  St.  Bernard 
dogs  kept  by  the 
monks,  has  some 
idea  of  how  Swit- 
zerland looks.  Here 
are  the  snow-capped 
Alps,  with  many 
lakes  and  fertile  valleys  between  them,  and  views  so 
beautiful  that  thousands  of  people  go  every  year  to  enjoy 
them  (p.  21).  One  of  the  occupations  of  the  Swiss  is  to 
provide  for  these  visitors  in  hotels  and  restaurants. 

The  green  grass  in  the  low  lying  valleys  and  on  the  mountain  sides 
provides  excellent  food  for  cattle  and  goats,  so  that  butter  and  cheese 
are  made,  as  in  Holland.  Probably  you  have  heard  of  Swiss  and 
Dutch  cheese. 

Wood  carving  is  also  an  important  industry.     During  the  long 


FIG.  199. 

The  snow-capped  Matterhorn,  one  of  the  Alpine 
peaks. 


223 


winters  the  wood  grown  upon  the  mountains  is  carved  into  toys, 
clocks,  and  many  other  articles.     Have  you  ever  seen  a  Swiss  clock? 

Name  the  countries  on  each  side  of  Switzerland,  and  notice  that  it 
is  surrounded  by  people  who  speak  German,  French,  and  Italian.  In 
consequence,  instead  of  having  one  language  of  their  own,  the  Swiss 
have  these  three,  those  living  in  each  part  speaking  the  language  of 
the  foreign  country  nearest  to  them. 

The  Swiss  government  has  long  been  a  republic,  like 
our  own,  and  BERNE  is  the  capital.  Find  the  chief  cities, 
ZURICH  and  GENEVA. 


FIG.  200. 
A  view  in  Austria. 

XI.  Austria-Hungary.  —  Austria  and  Hungary  are 
united  under  one  monarchy,  although  they  have  differ- 
ent customs  and  languages.  Many  of  the  Austrians  are 
closely  related  to  the  Germans ;  but  the  Hungarians  are 
a  very  different  race.  The  capital  and  largest  city  is 
VIENNA,  the  fourth  in  size  in  Europe.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Danube  River,  so  that  it  has  water  connection  with 
many  other  places. 

BUDAPEST  is  next  to  Vienna  in  importance.  Like  Minneapolis,  it 
is  in  the  midst  of  a  great  wheat  region,  and  is  a  flour-milling  centre. 


224 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  cultivation  of  flax  leads  to  another  manufacturing  industry. 
What  is  it? 

Which  parts  of  Austria-Hungary  are  mountainous?  Much  coal 
and  iron  are  found  in  the  northwestern  part  near  Germany,  and 
PRAGUE  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  hardware.  The  chief  harbor 
is  on  the  Adriatic  coast;  what  is  its  name? 

XII.  Greece.  —  The  country  in  Europe  which  has  per- 
haps had  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  rest  of  the  world 
is  Greece.  The  Romans  received  many  of  their  beliefs  and 


FIG.  201. 

The  Acropolis  with  its  ruins  on  top,  and  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  on 
the  right,  both  in  ancient  Athens. 

customs  from  the  Greeks;  and  since  many  of  ours  come  from 
the  Romans,  we  also  are  greatly  in  debt  to  the  Greeks. 

The  centre  of  this  influence  was  ATHENS,  once  the  most 
famous  city  in  the  world.  Many  years  later,  at  the  time 
of  Christ,  it  was  still  an  important  place.  Both  Athens 
and  Corinth,  near  by,  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

The  country  is  mountainous,  producing  raisins  and  other  fruits, 
and  much  grass  for  grazing.  But  there  is  little  mining  and  manu- 
facturing. 

At  one  time  the  Greeks  were  conquered  by  the  Turks  and  very 


EUROPE 


225 


cruelly  treated  by  them ;  but  they  obtained  their  independence,  and 
their  government  is  now  a  monarchy  with  ATHENS  for  its  capital. 

XIII.  Turkey.  —  The  largest  city  in  southeastern  Eu- 
rope is  CONSTANTINOPLE,  which  is  about  one-half  as 
large  as  Chicago.  Notice  what  an  excellent  location  it 
has.  It  is  the  capital  of  Turkey,  which,  like  Russia,  is  a 
country  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia. 

The  Turkish  govern- 
ment is  the  worst  in  Eu- 
rope. The  ruler,  called 
the  Sultan,  is  an  absolute 
despot,  who  governs  his 
people  so  badly  that  they 
are  kept  extremely  igno- 
rant and  poor.  In  all  the 
other  nations  of  Europe 
the  Christian  religion, 
either  Catholic  or  Prot- 
estant, is  followed  ;  but 
the  Turks  are  Moham- 


FIG.  202. 

A  mosque,  or  Mohammedan  church,  in 
Constantinople. 


medans,  followers  of  Mohammed,  like  many  other  people 
in  Asia  and  Africa.  They  are  religious  fanatics,  and  dis- 
like Christians  very  much. 

One  proof  that  the  Turkish  government  is  bad,  is  the  fact  that  the 
people  in  many  parts  of  the  Empire  have  rebelled  against  it  and 
fought  for  their  freedom.  For  example,  Roumania,  east  of  Austria, 
used  to  belong  to  Turkey,  but  it  is  now  an  independent  kingdom. 
The  same  is  true  of  Bulgaria,  Servia,  and  Montenegro;  Greece  has 
already  been  mentioned. 

The  people  in  all  these  countries  are  largely  engaged  in 
farming  and  herding,  the  Danube  Valley  being  especially 
fertile.  Grain,  wine,  and  raisins  are  important  products. 


226  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

I.  The  British  Isles.     QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  are  the  divisions  of 
the  British  Isles?    Where  is  each?     (2)  Why  have  not  the  British 
Isles  a  colder  climate?     (3)  Tell  about  the  agriculture.     (4)  What 
kinds  of  cloth  are  manufactured?    Where?     (5)  Where  is  the  iron 
manufacturing  carried  on.     (6)  Of  what  value  are  the   coal-beds? 
(7)  Tell  about  Ireland.     (8)  Explain  how  Great  Britain  has  come  to 
have  so  many  ships.     (9)  So  many  colonies.     Name  some  of  them, 
including  several  islands  near  North  America.     (10)  What  is  the 
British  Empire?    What  kind  of  government  has  it?     (11)  Locate  all 
the  cities  mentioned. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (12)  What  books  have  you  read  whose  authors  lived 
in  Great  Britain  ?  (13)  Examine  pocket-knives  and  table-knives  to  see 
if  you  can  find  some  made  in  England.  (14)  The  iron  manufactories 
of  England  remind  you  of  what  states  in  this  country?  (15)  When 
did  our  country  cease  to  be  a  colony  of  Great  Britain  ?  (16)  What 
are  the  people  from  the  four  divisions  of  the  British  Isles  called? 
(17)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  British  Isles. 

II.  Norse  Countries.     QUESTIONS.  —  (18)  What  about  the  climate 
of  Norway  and  Sweden?     (19)  Tell  about  the  agriculture;  the  other 
industries.     (20)  What  are  the  Norse  nations?     (21)  What  colonies 
have   the   Danes?      (22)  Name   the  chief  industries  of  Denmark? 
(23)  What  kind   of  government  have  these  Norse  countries?  and 
what  is  the  capital  of  each  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (24)  Find  out  something  about  Iceland.  (25)  In 
what  other  section  that  you  have  studied  is  fishing  important? 

(26)  Find  out  about  the  length   of   days    and   nights   in  Norway. 

(27)  Draw  a  map  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

III.  Russia.    QUESTIONS.  —  (28)    Tell   about  the  size   of  Russia. 
(29)  .What  parts  of  Russia  in  Europe  are  not  fitted  for  farming? 
Why?     (30)  What  is  the  main  occupation  of  the  people?    Name  the 
important  products.     (31)  What  are  the  tundras?      The  steppes? 
(32)  Which  is  the  largest  river  in  Europe?     (33)  Where  are  the  lead- 
ing Russian  ports  ?     (34)  Locate  three  of  the  largest  cities,  and  state 
why  each  is  important.     (35)  Tell  about  the  government. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (36)  Why  would  you  not  expect  Russian  sailors 
to  be  as  numerous  as  the  English  sailors?  (37)  Name  some  city  of 


EUROPE  227 

the  United  States  which  is  about  as  far  north  as  Odessa.  (38)  How 
does  the  northern  location  of  St.  Petersburg  interfere  with  its  com- 
merce by  sea?  (39)  What  city  on  the  St.  Lawrence  has  the  same 
difficulty  ?  (40)  Show  the  route  a  vessel  would  take  in  going  from 
Odessa  to  London.  From  Odessa  to  St.  Petersburg. 

IV.  Germany.     QUESTIONS.  —  (41)  Where  is  the  highest  land  in 
Germany?     The  great  plains?     (42)  Tell  about  the  chief  farm  prod- 
ucts.     (43)  What   are   the    principal   manufactures    in    Germany? 
(44)  Where  is  Hamburg?     (45)  For  what  is  Berlin  noted?    Leipzig? 
Munich?      Dresden?      Locate  each.      (46)   Tell  about  the  govern- 
ment. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (47)  Do  you  know  any  songs  or  stories  about  the 
Rhine  River?  (48)  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  course  of  this  river. 
(49)  Do  you  know  of  any  German  paintings  ?  Of  any  music  written 
by  Germans?  (50)  Make  a  collection  of  German  pictures. 

V.  Holland.     QUESTIONS.  —  (51 )  Tell  about  the  dykes  and  canals  of 
Holland.     (52)  What  is  the  principal  industry ?    Why?     (53)  What 
important  colonies  has  Holland ?     (54)  What  are  the  main  cities? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (55)  Write  a  story  telling  what  you  think  might 
result  if  a  dyke  were  to  give  way.  (56)  Find  a  picture  of  a  Dutch 
windmill.  (57)  Tell  what  you  would  expect  to  see  in  crossing  Hol- 
land on  a  railway  train. 

VI.  Belgium.     QUESTIONS.  —  (58)  What  are  the  farm  products  of 
Belgium  ?     (59)  Tell  what  you  can  about  flax.     (60)  Name  and  lo- 
cate the  two  principal  cities.     (61)  What  about  coal  and  iron? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (62)  Examine  a  piece  of  Brussels  carpet ;  a  piece 
of  lace  also. 

VII.  France.     QUESTIONS.  —  (63)  Describe    the  chief    slopes    of 
France.     (64)  What  are  the  products  in  the  northern  part?    In  the 
southern  part  ?     (65)  Tell  about  the  silk  industry.     (66)  What  can 
you  say  about  the  capital?     (67)  About  each  of  the  other  cities? 
(68)  What  kind  of  government  has  France? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (69)  Examine  a  cocoon  and  a  piece  of  silk.  Ob- 
tain a  caterpillar,  if  possible  the  silkworm,  and  raise  it  in  the  school 
to  see  how  the  silkworm  forms  silk  and  what  happens  to  the 
"worm."  (70)  Why  would  the  value  of  a  cocoon  be  destroyed  if 
the  chrysalis  inside  were  to  break  through  in  order  to  get  out? 
(71)  Can  you  find  any  pictures  of  Paris? 


228  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

VIII.  Spain  and  Portugal.     QUESTIONS.  —  (72)  Where    are    the 
Pyrenees  Mountains?     (73)  Tell  about   the   former  power  of  these 
countries.     (74)  Describe  the  relief  and  climate.     (75)  What  are  the 
industries  on    the  plateau?     (76)  WThat  minerals  are   found  there? 

(77)  Where  is  most  of  the  farming  ?    What  are  the  chief  products  ? 

(78)  Name  and  locate  the   most  important  coast  cities.     The  two 
capitals. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (79)  Would  you  expect  the  rivers  to  be  naviga- 
ble for  any  considerable  distance  from  the  Spanish  coast?  Why? 

(80)  Make  a  sand  map  of  Spain,  showing  the  high  and   low  land. 

(81)  Examine  some  quicksilver.     For  what  is  it  used?     (82)  Can 
you  find  out  anything  about  the  Moors  and  the  Alhambra  in  south- 
ern Spain?     Perhaps  you  can  find  pictures  from  there.    Washington 
Irving  has  written  some  beautiful  stories  about  the  Alhambra. 

IX.  Italy.     QUESTIONS.  —  (83)  Where  is  Rome?     Venice?    Na- 
ples?    Mt.  Vesuvius?    Milan?     (84)  Tell  something  about  each  of 
these.     (85)  Where  are  the  mountains  ?     (86)  Where  is  the  Po  Val- 
ley ?     (87)  What  is  raised  in  Italy  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (88)  Find  pictures  of  some  of  the  ruins  in  Rome. 
(89)  Of  some  of  the  buildings  in  Venice.  (90)  Look  on  a  globe  to  see  in 
which  direction  Rome  is  from  New  York.  (91)  Draw  a  map  of  Italy. 

X.  Switzerland.     QUESTIONS. —  (92)  What  are   some  of  the  in- 
dustries of  the  Swiss?    (93)  What  languages  are  spoken?    (94)  Name 
the  principal  cities.     (95)  What  is  the  kind  of  government? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (96)  Read  the  story  of  William  Tell.  (97)  Find 
other  stories  about  Switzerland.  (98)  What  disadvantages  do  you 
see  in  having  so  many  languages  ?  (99)  What  large  rivers  rise  in 
Switzerland?  (100)  Write  a  story  describing  a  visit  to  the  Alps. 
You  will  get  some  suggestions  from  Figure  15,  page  18,  Figure  110, 
page  131,  and  Figure  20,  page  23. 

XI.  Austria-Hungary.     QUESTIONS.  —  (101)  Name    four    leading 
cities  in   Austria-Hungary.     (102)  Tell  why  each  is  important. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (103)  Trace  the  Danube  River  from  its  source  to 
its  mouth.  (104)  How  far  is  Trieste  from  Venice  ?  (105)  Through 
what  waters  would  a  vessel  pass  in  sailing  from  New  York  to  Trieste  ? 
(106)  By  using  the  scale  on  the  map,  find  out  how  far  Vienna  is  from 
Munich.  From  Leipzig.  From  Berlin.  From  Paris.  From  St. 
Petersburg.  (107)  In  what  direction  is  it  from  each  of  these? 


EUROPE  229 

XII.  Greece.     QUESTIONS.  —  (108)  What  can  you  say  about  the 
influence  of  Greece  upon  the  world  ?    (109)  Find  Athens.    (1.10)  Tell 
about  the  climate  and  products. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (111)  Where    can    you    read    about    Ulysses? 

(112)  Have    some    one    tell    you    the    story    of    the    Trojan   War. 

(113)  Find  some  other  stories  about  the  ancient  Greeks. 

XIII.  Turkey.     QUESTIONS.  — (114)  Where  is  Turkey?    What  is 
its  capital?     (115)  Tell  about  its  government.     (116)  What  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  people  ?     (117)  What  countries  have  gained 
their  independence  £rom  Turkey  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (118)  What  is  the  boundary  line  between  Tur- 
key in  Europe  and  Turkey  in  Asia?  (119)  Examine  a  Turkish  rug. 
(120)  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  Russia  would  like  to  own 
Constantinople  ? 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS 

(121)  Do  you  know  of  any  persons  who  have  come  from  one  of 
these  countries  of  Europe  ?  If  so,  ask  them  to  tell  you  about  them. 
Also  have  them  speak  in  their  native  language.  (122)  Ask  your 
storekeeper  to  show  you  some  goods  from  Europe.  (123)  What  diffi- 
culties would  you  expect  to  meet  if  you  were  to  travel  through  Europe 
without  knowing  any  foreign  languages?  (124)  Bound  each  of  the 
countries  of  Europe.  (125)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Europe,  putting 
in  these  boundaries  and  the  principal  rivers.  (126)  Make  a  dot  to 
represent  Berlin  ;  also  locate  the  other  large  cities.  Mark  the  capitals 
with  stars.  (127)  Collect  pictures  of  Europe  for  the  school  collection. 
(128)  Cut  out  scraps,  from  the  magazines  and  papers,  relating  to  the 
people,  animals,  plants,  cities,  etc.,  of  different  parts  of  Europe  and 
present  them  to  the  school  to  be  kept  for  use  in  the  geography  class. 
They  can  be  arranged  by  countries  and  will  be  very  useful. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  261. 


XIX.    ASIA 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Through  what  zones  does  Asia  extend? 
(2)  What  climate  would  you  expect  to  find?  (3)  Where  are  the 
highest  mountains  and  plateaus  ?  (4)  What  rivers  have  their  sources 
in  that  region ?  (5)  What  large  inland  seas  do  you  find?  (6)  What 
three  large  peninsulas  on  the  southern  side?  (7)  What  three  were 
found  on  the  south  side  of  Europe?  (8)  How  does  Asia  compare  in 
size  with  Europe?  (9)  Find  Asia  on  a  globe.  (10)  How  could  you 
reach  it,  if  you  wished  to  go  there  ? 

Physical  Geography.  —  Like  Europe,  the  coast  of  Asia 
is  very  irregular,  with  many  peninsulas  and  islands. 
Draw  an  outline  map  of  it,  showing  these,  with  the  larger 
bays  and  seas  enclosed  by  them. 

Note  the  direction  in  which  the  many  mountain  ranges 
extend.  The  loftiest  among  them,  and  in  fact  the  highest 
in  the  world,  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains  (Fig.  204), 
the  highest  peak,  Mount  Everest,  being  over  twenty-nine 
thousand  feet,  or  about  five  and  one-half  miles,  above  the 
sea.  Where  is  it  ?  How  does  it  compare  in  height  with 
Mt.  Blanc  ?  (See  p.  270.) 

North  of  the  Himalayas  are  lofty  plateaus,  one  of  them, 
the  plateau  of  Tibet,  being  about  three  miles  in  height. 
How  does  that  compare  with  the  Spanish  plateau  (see 
p.  271)  and  with  our  western  plateau  (see  p.  271)  ? 
It  is  so  high  that  the  winter  climate  is  very  cold  ;  and 
since  the  winds  from  the  ocean  have  lost  their  moisture 
in  passing  over  the  mountains,  these  plateaus  are  also 

230 


- 


ASIA  231 

dry.     Farther  north  it  is  drier  still,  and  we  find  there 
the  great  desert  of  Gobi. 

These  mountains  and  plateaus  form  the  watershed  of  the  conti- 
nent. Find  three  great  rivers  that  flow  northward  from  the  watershed 
through  the  vast  plain  of  Siberia.  Name  three  that  flow  eastward 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  What  others  flow  southward  ? 

The  southwestern  portion  of  Asia  is  mainly  a  desert, 
because  the  winds  blowing  over  it  come  from  the  land 
instead  of  from  the  sea,  and  therefore  have  little  vapor. 


FIG.  204. 
The  snowy  range  of  the  lofty  Himalayas. 

From  what  has  been  said  about  the  climate  it  is  plain  that  the 
inhabitants  of  this  continent  must  be  found  chiefly  in  the  eastern 
and  southern  parts.  There  they  live  in  vast  numbers  along  the  coast 
and  the  large  rivers;  in  fact,  nearly  one-half  of  all  the  people  in  the 
world  are  found  in  these  regions. 

I.  Southwestern  Asia.  —  Rome  and  Athens  have  been 
mentioned  as  cities  that  have  had  a  great  influence  upon 
other  countries.  But  the  part  of  the  world  which  has 
probably  had  the  greatest  influence  of  all  is  that  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Here  is  the  land 


232  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

that  used  to  be  called  Palestine,  the  home  of  the  Jews ; 
and  here  is  still  the  city  of  JERUSALEM  (Fig.  205),  near 
which  Christ  was  born  about  1900  years  ago,  and  in  which 
He  was  crucified.  The  Christian  churches  and  Christmas 
are  in  His  memory.  The  home  of  Christ,  where  the 
Christian  religion  was  founded,  is  now  a  part  of  the 
Turkish  empire  which  extends  into  Asia. 

Turkey  extends  down  the  western  coast  of  the  Arabian  peninsula, 
and  includes  another  famous  city  called  MECCA.  The  Turks  are  not 
Christians  but  Mohammedans,  or  followers  of  Mohammed,  who  was 


FIG.  205. 
A  picture  of  a  part  of  Jerusalem. 

born  at  Mecca  nearly  fourteen  hundred  years  ago.  The  Moham- 
medans believe  in  God,  and  their  holy  book  is  called  the  Koran.  A 
great  many  other  people  in  Asia  and  northern  Africa  are  followers  of 
Mohammed. 

The  western  part  of  Asia,  including  Turkey,  Arabia, 
and  Persia,  has  a  very  dry,  arid  climate.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  Arabia,  which  is  mainly  a  desert  plateau 
much  more  arid  than  Spain. 

In  this  desert  country  agriculture  is  not  a  very  impor- 


ASIA 


tant  industry ;  but  dates  and  coffee  are  raised  there,  espe- 
cially near  the  rivers  and  along  the  coast.  You  have 
perhaps  heard  of  MOCHA  coffee,  and  if  you  look  on  the 
map  you  can  find  the  place  from  which  it  gets  its  name. 


FIG.  206. 
The  home  of  a  group  of  Persian  nomads. 

Although  so  much  of  this  region  is  desert,  there  are  places,  called 
oases,  where  water  is  found.  As  these  are  usually  too  small  to  fur- 
nish water  and  grass  for  large  herds  during  a  long  time,  the  Arabs  are 
forced  to  wander  from  place  to  place,  having  no  fixed  homes.  On 
that  account  they  are  called  nomads  or  wanderers  (Fig.  206).  They 
take  special  pride  in  raising  horses,  which  have  become  famous  through- 
out the  world.  They  also  keep  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  camels. 

Much  of  Persia  is  also  a  desert ;  but  some  parts  are 
well  suited  to  grazing,  and  the  climate  is  warm  enough 
for  such  fruits  as  figs  and  dates.  What  is  the  capital? 
The  ruler  of  the  Persians  is  a  despot  called  the  Shah. 

The  people  of  these  countries  are  not  civilized  enough  to  carry  on 
much  manufacturing,  although  beautiful  carpets,  rugs,  and  shawls 
are  made  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  Persia  and  Turkey.  The 


234  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

work  is  done  by  hand,  and  though  it  is  well  done,  it  requires  a  great 
deal  of  time,  while  in  our  great  factories  carpets  are  quickly  made  by 
machinery.  Railways  are  almost  unknown,  and  even  carriage  roads 
are  usually  lacking.  Goods  are  carried  upon  camels  in  groups,  called 
caravans,  and  men  travel  upon  the  backs  of  horses  and  camels. 

II.  Siberia.  —  Siberia  belongs  to  Russia.  It  is  a  region 
of  extensive  plains  and  is  much  larger  than  the  whole  of 
Russia  in  Europe.  Like  northern  Canada,  much  of  it  is 
so  cold  that  few  people  can  live  there,  and  it  has  been 
made  a  prison  for  many  Russians  who  have  committed 
crime,  or  who  have  offended  their  despotic  rulers. 

A  large  portion  of  southwestern  Siberia  is  a  desert  having  numerous 
lakes  without  outlets.  Would  you  expect  them  to  be  salt  or  fresh  ? 
Between  this  arid  section  and  the  bleak  northern  plains,  or  tundras, 
which  resemble  those  of  northern  Europe,  is  a  region  where  there 
are  extensive  forests,  and  broad  plains  suited  for  grazing  and  farming. 


FIG.  207. 
A  Siberian  three-horse  wagon. 


One  of  the  chief  sources  of  wealth  of  Siberia  is  in  the  gold  mines 

of  the  Ural  Mountains.     Graphite,  from  which  the  "lead"  in  lead 

pencils  is  made,  is  also  found  there.     Many  of  the  prisoners  from 
Russia  are  compelled  to  work  in  these  mines. 


ASIA  235 

The  Russian  government  has  built  a  great  railway  all  the  way 
from  St.  Petersburg  eastward  to  PORT  ARTHUR  in  China  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  How  far  is  that? 

III.  The  Chinese  Empire  and  Korea.  —  Some  of  the  most 
important  arts  that  we  have  ever  learned  first  came  from 
the  Chinese.  For  instance,  they  made  porcelain  dishes 
long  before  Europeans  knew  how,  and  on  that  account 


FIG.  208. 
Houseboats  on  the  Tientsin  River  of  China. 

those  dishes  are  still  called  chinatvare,  even  though 
manufactured  in  the  United  States.  They  invented 
gunpowder,  and  our  firecrackers  for  the  Fourth  of  July 
used  to  come  from  China.  They  also  discovered  how  to 
make  silk  and  paper,  and  they  invented  the  art  of  printing. 

But  while  this  strange-looking,  yellow  race  was  once  among  the 
foremost  nations  of  the  earth,  it  is  now  very  much  behind.  This  is 
explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  their  religion  causes  them  to  worship 
their  ancestors,  so  that  whatever  their  fathers  did,  they  must  do. 
Since  their  fathers  had  no  railways,  telegraphs,  or  telephones,  none 
are  wanted  now.  Owing  to  their  fear  of  new  things,  they  have 
neither  travelled  abroad  much  nor  allowed  foreigners  to  visit  them, 

But  recently  many  Chinese  have  come  to  this  country,  working 
as  servants,  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast?  and  as  laundrymen  in  all 


236 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


parts  of  our  country.     Besides  that,  they  now  allow  foreigners  to 
live  in  some  of  their  coast  cities  and  trade  with  the  people. 

CANTON  in  the  southern  part,  which  is  considerably 
larger  than  Chicago,  and  SHANGHAI,  a  city  nearly  as 
large  as  Baltimore,  are  the  principal  ports  for  trade  with 
Americans.  HONGKONG  is  a  British  port. 

Much  of  the  northern  and  western  portions  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
are  so  high  and  dry  that  few  persons  can  live  there.  Find  the  names 
of  those  parts.  But  the  lower  plains  near  the  coast,  especially  the 
fertile  flood  plains  and  deltas  of  the  great  rivers,  support  a  vast 
population,  because  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  abundant  rainfall  is  sup- 
plied by  the  damp  winds  from  the  Pacific.  Here  live  nearly  one- 
fourth  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe,  crowded  together  so  closely 
that  many  thousands  dwell  in  boats  on  the  rivers. 

Iii  the  northern  part  a  great  deal  of  wheat  is  raised  ; 
but  farther  south  rice,  millet,  tea-  and  silk  are  important 

products.  China 
produces  more 
raw  silk  than  any 
other  country  in 
the  world.  What 
other  regions  are 
noted  for  these 
same  products  ? 

The  govern- 
ment is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy, 
with  the  capital  at 
PEKING,  which, 
like  TIENTSIN,  its 
seaport,  is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  Boston.  The  govern- 
ment is  so  weak  and  corrupt  that  European  nations  are 


FIG.  209. 
Temple  in  Peking. 


ASIA 


237 


able  to  seize  and  hold  parts  of  the  country,  so  that  the 
once  great  empire  is  in  danger  of  being  destroyed  and  the 
different  parts  made  subject  to  various  European  nations. 

Korea  is  also  a  very  unprogressive  nation  which,  until  recently, 
would  not  permit  foreigners  to  enter. 

IV.  Japan.  —  The  Japanese  live  upon  islands  east  of  Asia, 
as  the  British  do  west  of  Europe.  Their  territory  is  but 
slightly  larger  than 
the  British  Isles,  and 
there  are  not  many 
more  inhabitants. 
Many  of  the  islands 
are  small,  but  there 
are  five  large  ones,  the 
southernmost  being 
Formosa.  They  are 
really  the  crest  of  a 
mountain  range  ris- 
ing above  the  sea,  and 
some  of  the  mountain 
peaks  are  volcanoes. 


FIG.  210. 

A  Japanese  woman  being  carried  in  a  travelling 
chair  by  two  Japanese  men. 


The  Japanese  used  to  be  much  like  their  neighbors,  the  Chinese ; 
that  is,  they  believed  in  ancestor  worship,  and  wanted  nothing  to  do 
with  foreigners.  But  in  1853  an  American  naval  officer,  with  several 
war-ships,  entered  the  harbor  of  Yokohama  and  persuaded  the  Jap- 
anese to  allow  us  to  trade  with  them. 

Before  many  years  had  passed  the  Japanese  not  only  allowed 
foreigners  to  enter,  but  they  invited  them  to  come  as  teachers,  and 
even  sent  some  of  their  own  young  men  abroad  to  study.  There  have 
been  many  Japanese  students  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the 
United  States  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  result  is  that  Japan  is  now  far  in  advance  of  China,  and  in 


238 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


fact  of  all  other  parts  of  Asia.  Railways,  telephones,  and  newspapers 
are  common,  and  there  are  many  good  schools,  while  rapid  progress 
has  been  made  in  manufacturing. 

That  the  Japanese  are  very  skilful  in  many  kinds  of 
handiwork  is  suggested  by  the  Japanese  fans,  parasols, 
napkins,  dolls,  and  screens  so  often  seen  in  this  country. 

* . Whatever    they 

make  they  try  to 
make  beautiful,  be- 
ing one  of  the  most 
artistic  races  in 
the  world. 

Japan,  like 
China,  produces  a 
great  amount  of 
silk,  rice,  and  tea. 
There  is  also  con- 
siderable mining. 

The  principal 
city  and  capital  is 
TOKIO,  which  is 
as  large  as  Phila- 
delphia, and  is  the 
home  of  the  em- 
peror, called  the 
Mikado.  Its  seaport  is  YOKOHAMA,  a  city  as  large  as 
Rochester. 

V.  India  and  Indo-China.  —  India,  the  central  one  of 
the  three  peninsulas  on  -the  southern  side  of  Asia,  is  the 
country  that  Columbus  thought  he  had  reached  when  he 
discovered  America.  Hence  the  name  "  Indians  "  for  the 
savages  whom  he  met. 


FIG.  211. 

The   way  Japanese   babies  are  carried   by   the 
young  girls.    The  baby  leaning  back  is  asleep. 


ASIA 


239 


FIG.  212. 
Idols  in  a  cave  near  Bombay. 


The  damp  winds  from  the  Indian  Ocean  furnish  the  plains  and 
mountains  of  India  with  so  much  rain  that  in  places  the  forests  form 
a  perfect  tangle  or  jungle 
of  luxuriant  vegetation, 
in  which  live  tigers,  ele- 
phants, and  many  other 
wild  animals.  Have  you 
ever  read  Rudyard  Kip- 
ling's "Jungle  Book," 
which  tells  of  this  region  ? 
Several  very  large  rivers 
rise  in  the  Himalayas  and 
flow  across  the  plains. 
One  is  the  Indus,  from 
which  the  word  India  comes,  and  also  the  word  Hindoos,  as  the  in- 
habitants are  sometimes  called. 
The  river  flowing  southeast  is  the 
Ganges,  on  which  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city,  CALCUTTA.  The 
next  city  in  size  on  this  eastern 
coast  is  MADRAS,  far  to  the  south, 
while  the  largest  city  on  the 
west  side  is  BOMBAY,  which  has 
the  best  harbor  of  all. 

Nearly  all  this  peninsula,  to- 
gether with  the  part  of  Indo- 
China  called  Burmah,  belongs  to 
England,  through  whose  influ- 
ence roads  and  railways  have 
been  built  and  manufacturing 
carried  on. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons 
why  England  holds  India 
is  for  the  important  crops 

FIG.  213.  .  ^ 

raised  there.     Cotton,  one 

A  view  in  the  palace  grounds  at  Bang-         „      .  ,  , 

kok,  Siam.  °f   the  principal  products, 


240  THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 

is  shipped  to  England  to  be  made  into  cloth,  and  then 
some  of  this  cloth  is  shipped  back  to  India  and  sold. 
Where  else  have  we  found  a  similar  situation  ? 

Wheat  is  another  great  product,  and  since  England 
cannot  raise  enough  of  that  food  for  herself,  she  secures 
some  of  it  from  India.  Other  crops  are  poppies,  from 
which  opium  is  made,  silk,  rice,  tea,  coffee,  and  sugar. 

The  peninsula  east  of  India,  called  Indo-China,  and  the  East  In- 
dian Islands  south  of  it,  are  other  places  that  Columbus  wished  to 
reach.  Here  are  found  precious  stones,  pepper,  such  spices  as  nutmeg 
and  cinnamon,  and  other  valuable  products,  which  were  carried  by 
caravans  to  Europe  long  before  the  time  of  Columbus.  Many  of 
these  products  are  now  shipped  from  SINGAPORE,  an  English  city  on 
an  island  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Malay  peninsula.  The  greatest 
city  in  Indo-China  is  BANGKOK,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Siam. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS 

I.  Southwestern  Asia.     QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  part  of  Asia  has 
had  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  civilized  world  V     Tell  about  it. 
(2)  To  what  nation  does  Palestine  belong?     (3)  What  other  parts 
of  Asia  belong  to  it?     (4)  Tell  about  Mecca.     (5)  Describe  Arabia. 
(6)  How  do  the  Arabians  live  ?     (7)  What  do  you  know  about  Per- 
sia?    (8)  How  do  people  travel  in  those  countries  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (9)  What  is  meant  by  the  date  1900?  (10)  What 
buildings  in  your  neighborhood  have  been  erected  in  the  memory  of 
Christ?  (11)  What  stories  in  the  Bible  have  you  read  that  tell  about 
places  mentioned  in  this  book  or  on  the  map?  (12)  What  reasons 
can  you  suggest  why  the  Turks  have  not  taken  possession  of  the  inte- 
rior of  Arabia,  as  well  as  of  the  coast  ?  (13)  Does  your  grocer  sell 
Mocha  coffee  ?  (14)  Examine  a  Persian  or  Turkish  rug.  (15)  Learn 
how  camels  are  especially  fitted  to  live  in  desert  countries. 

II.  Siberia.     QUESTIONS.  —  (16)  Point  toward  Siberia.     (17)  Tell 
about  the  climate.    (18)  In  what  occupations  are  the  people  engaged? 
(19)  How  does  Siberia  compare  in  size  with  Russia  ? 


ASIA  241 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (20)  What  advantage  will  the  railway  be  to  Rus- 
sia? (21)  How  does  that  railway  compare  in  length  with  those  reach- 
ing across  the  United  States?  (22)  What  object  do  you  see  in  having 
the  eastern  terminus,  Port  Arthur,  so  far  south? 

III.  Chinese  Empire  and  Korea.    QUESTIONS.  —  (23)  Name  some  of 
the  arts  that  we  have  learned  from  the  Chinese?     (24)  What  has 
made   them  so  backward  ?     (25)  What  special  ports   are  open  to 
American  traders  ?     (26)  In  what  part  of  China  do  most  of  the  peo- 
ple  live?      Why  there?      (27)  What   are  the  principal  products? 
(28)  What  kind  of  a  government  has  China?  (29)    Tell  about  Korea. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (30)  How  can  you  distinguish  a  Chinaman  from 
other  men?  (31)  How  does  the  number  of  people  in  China  compare 
with  the  number  in  the  whole  of  Europe?  (See  the  table  on  p.  262.) 
(32)  Write  a  story  telling  some  of  the  differences  between  life  in 
America  and  in  China.  (33)  Draw  the  two  chief  rivers  in  China. 
(34)  How  might  railways  in  China  help  to  prevent  the  awful  famines 
that  they  have  there  ?  (35)  Find  out  about  Confucius.  About  the 
Great  Wall  of  China. 

IV.  Japan.     QUESTIONS.  —  (36)  Where  is  Japan  ?     (37)  In  what 
way  have  the  Japanese  been  like  the  Chinese?     (38)  How  have  they 
differed?     (39)  Why  are  they  called  an  artistic  race?     (40)  What 
are  their  chief  products?     (41)  Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (42)  Make  a  collection  of  Japanese  articles,  as 
paper  napkins,  fans,  etc.  (43)  Examine  them  to  see  in  what  respect 
they  are  artistic.  (44)  Collect  pictures  of  Japanese  houses  and  people. 

V.  India  and  Indo-China.     QUESTIONS.  —  (45)  What  nation  owns 
India?     (46)  AVhat  rivers  in  northern  India?     (47)  Locate  the  chief 
cities.     (48)  What  are  the  products?     (49)  What  advantages   does 
England  enjoy  in  owning  India  ?     (50)  Name  the  peninsula  east  of 
India.     (51)  What  comes  from  there  ?     (52)  Find  Singapore. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (53)  How  far  was  Columbus  from  India  when  he 
discovered  America?  (54)  What  route  should  he  have  taken  if  he 
had  continued  his  voyage  to  India  ?  (55)  What  is  the  shortest  route 
from  Bombay  to  London  ?  Through  what  waters  would  a  vessel  pass? 

VI.  REVIEW. —  (56)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Asia  and  put  in  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  principal  countries ;  also  the  rivers,  mountains 
and  cities.     (57)  Find  out  about  foreign  missions  to  Asia. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  261. 


XX.    AFRICA 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  continent  does  Africa  most  resem- 
ble in  shape?  (2)  In  what  parts  are  the  chief  mountain  ranges? 

(3)  Find  the  main  slopes  on  the  continent  by  a  study  of  the  rivers. 

(4)  Name  and  trace  the  three  largest  rivers.     (5)  About  how  much 
of  Africa  lies  in  the  torrid  zone  ?     (6)  How  does  its  coast  line  com- 
pare with  that  of  Europe  as  to  regularity?     (7)  What  influence  must 
that  have  upon  the  harbors  ? 

The  Dark  Continent.  —  Although  Africa  is  so  near 
Europe  that  they  almost  join  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 
and  although  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  continents  that  history 
tells  about,  it  is  the  least  known  of  them  all. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  In  the  first  place, 
south  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is  a  broad  desert,  extend- 
ing entirely  across  the  continent.  This,  a  part  of  which  is 
called  the  Sahara  Desert  (Fig.  69),  is  about  a  thousand 
miles  wide,  and  very  difficult  to  cross. 

South  of  this  desert  for  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
the  country  is  covered  with  a  forest  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavy  ;  and  near  the  equator  the  vegetation  is  so  rank 
that  an  almost  impenetrable  jungle  is  formed,  like  the 
Amazon  jungle.  It  is  inhabited  by  large  and  fierce 
animals,  such  as  the  elephant,  tiger  (Fig.  Ill),  and  lion. 

The  rivers  offer  further  obstacles  to  travel.  The 
continent  is  mainly  a  plateau,  varying  from  one-fourth  to 
one  and  one-half  miles  in  height;  and  its  rivers  on 
approaching  the  ocean  have  numerous  rapids  and  falls, 
so  that  boats  cannot  make  their  way  up-stream. 

242 


AFRICA 


243 


The  Great  Pyramid  aiid  the  Sphynx.    What  animals  are  those  standing  on  the 
desert  sands  near  the  Sphynx  ? 

Not  only  are  there  deserts,  unnavigable  rivers,  and  dense 
forests  with  fierce  animals,  but  there  are  hordes  of  savages 
belonging  to  the  black  race.  It  was  from  Africa  that 
negroes  were  first  brought  to  our  country  as  slaves,  and 
on  that  account  those  now  here  are  often  called  Africans. 

Here,  then,  are  several  reasons  why  we  know  so  little 
about  Africa,  which,  because  of  this,  and  because  so  many 
blacks  live  there,  is  sometimes  called  the  "dark  conti- 
nent." 

Northern  Africa.  —  The  African  side  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  being  so  close  to  Asia  and  Europe,  has  long 
been  settled  by  the  white  race.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 


244 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


are  Arabs,  who,  being  believers  in  Mohammed,  still  make 
pilgrimages  to  Mecca  in  Arabia,  like  other  followers  of 
that  prophet. 

The  best-known  country  in  this  section  is  Egypt,  and 
CAIRO,  its  capital,  is  the  largest  city  in  Africa,  being 
about  twice  the  size  of  New  Orleans.  ALEXANDRIA  is 
the  chief  Egyptian  port. 

This  is  the  country  over  which  the  Pharaohs,  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
used  to  rule ;  and  the  ruins  of  the  immense  pyramids  and  monu- 
ments that  they  built  thousands  of  years  ago  may  still  be  seen. 
Here,  the  Bible  tells,  Moses  once  lived;  and  Joseph  also.  What 
stories  do  you  remember  about  them  ? 

Most  of  Egypt  is  a  desert  country,  like  Arabia  on  the  one 
side  and  the  Sahara  Desert  on  the  other.  The  Nile  River 
flows  through  this  desert,  and  every  year  the  heavy  floods, 
from  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia  and  the  forest  country 
near  the  equator,  cause  it  to  rise  higher  and  higher  until  it 
overflows  its  banks.  These  floods,  spreading  out  over  the 
flood  plain  and  level  delta  of  the  Nile,  irrigate  the  land. 

As  in  other  rivers,  the  water  carries  with  it  an  abundance 
of  mud,  which  settles  in  a  thin  layer  of  rich  soil  upon  the  flood 

plain,  making  it  so 
fertile  that  excel- 
lent crops  of  cotton, 
sugar-cane,  and 
grain  can  be  raised 
after  the  water  is 
gone.  By  this 
means  millions  of 
people  obtain  food, 

FIG.  216.  although  they  live 

A  ship  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal.  in  a  desert  region. 


AFRICA 


245 


The  eastern  part  of  Egypt  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which  con- 
nects Africa  with  Asia.  Because  of  this  narrow  neck  of  land,  ships  sail- 
ing from  Europe  to  Asia  were  compelled  to  go  all  the  way  round  Africa ; 
but  in  1869  a  canal  one  hundred  miles  long  was  completed  across  the 
isthmus,  so  that  vessels  can  now  make  a  short  cut.  Estimate  how  many 
miles  are  saved  by  the  Suez  Canal  in  going  from  London  to  Calcutta. 

Name  the  countries  west  of  Egypt  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast.  What  are  their  capitals  ?  Most  of  them, 
like  Egypt  itself,  are  controlled  by  countries  of  Europe. 
Their  products  are  similar  to  those  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  Mediterranean.  What  are  some  of  them  ? 


FIG.  217. 
A  family  camped  on  an  oasis  in  the  desert  of  Morocco. 

On  the  desert  of  Sahara  few  people  are  able  to  live.  Some  parts 
are  sandy  plains,  while  others  are  rocky  and  hilly,  and  in  places 
even  mountainous.  But  here  and  there,  as  in  Arabia,  are  oases  where 
water  comes  from  underground,  so  that  grass  and  date  palms  are  able 
to  grow.  Sometimes  these  oases  are  so  large  that  villages  are  built 
upon  them ;  and  the  caravans  that  cross  the  desert  to  bring  ivory  and 
other  products  from  the  south,  make  their  stops  at  these  places.  Some 
of  these  caravans  consist  of  hundreds  of  camels,  so  that  there  is  need 
of  much  food  and  water. 


246 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Central  Africa.  —  Until  a  few  years  ago  this  was  a  wil- 
derness that  no  civilized  man  had  ever  visited ;  but  now 
much  of  it  has  been  explored.  The  natives  are  mainly 
savage  blacks ;  and  the  Arabs,  who  go  there  to  purchase 
ivory,  still  carry  large  numbers  of  them  away  as  slaves. 

The  northern  part  is  called  the  Soudan.  Near  the 
borders  of  the  Sahara  the  country  is  a  desert ;  but  this 
condition  gradually  changes  until,  farther  south,  the  land 
is  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest,  for  the  rains  are 
heavy  near  the  equator.  In  this  region  live  the  lion, 
rhinoceros,  giraffe,  and  elephant,  the  latter  being  killed 
for  the  sake  of  its  ivory  tusks.  Some  of  the  forest  woods 
are  valuable,  and  since  the  rubber  tree  nourishes  there,  as 
along  the  Amazon,  rubber  is  another  product.  See  p.  200. 

The  two  great  rivers  of  this  region  are  the  Niger,  north  of  the 
equator,  and  the  Kongo,  south  of  it.  They  are  the  main  roads  leading 

•.     inland,  although    their  falls 

and  rapids  greatly  interfere 
with  travel.  Throughout  that 
entire  region  there  are  almost 
no  wagon  roads,  so  that  goods 
must  be  carried  either  on  the 
rivers  or  over  paths  or  trails 
in  pack  trains.  But  this  sit- 
uation is  improving  as  the 
nations,  of  Europe  obtain 
more  and  more  control.  At 
the  present  time,  several  Eu- 
ropean countries  claim  parts 
of  Africa,  England  having 
the  largest  share,  as  you  will  see  from  the  map,  and  they  are  intro- 
ducing civilized  laws,  railways,  and  other  improvements. 

South  Africa.  —  Southern  Africa  is  the  best  developed 
section  of  the  continent.  It  was  originally  settled  by  the 


FIG.  218. 
Kaffirs,  South  African  savages,  in  full  dress. 


AFRICA 


Dutch,  though  England  has  taken  possession  of  a  portion 
of  it.     Part  of  it  is  a  high  plateau,  with  a  warm  temperate 


FIG.  219. 
A  group  of  ostriches  in  South  Africa. 

climate,  having  many  of  the  same  products  as  our  own 
country.     Most  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  farming  and 
ranching,    producing   grain,    wool,    and   hides.       Ostrich 
farming    is    an   impor- 
tant industry  in  Cape 
Colony,   the    beautiful 
feathers    of    the    male 


bird  being  very  valua- 
ble. 

JOHANNESBURG  is 
the  centre  of  the  richest 
gold-mining  region  in 
the  world,  and  more 
diamonds  are  obtained 
from  near  KIMBERLEY  than  from  any  other  part  of  the 
globe.  Portions  of  southern  Africa  have  long  been  settled 


FIG.  220. 
A  picture  of  a  diamond  mine  at  Kimberley. 


248  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

by  Europeans  and  much  of  it  is  now  owned  by  England, 
the  oldest  colony  being  Cape  Colony,  the  capital  of  which 
is  CAPE  TOWN.  Consequently  many  railways  and  good 
wagon  roads  have  been  built,  and  many  other  advances 
have  been  made. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  — (1)  Why  is  so  little  known  about  Africa? 
(2)  Why  is  it  called  the  "  dark  continent "  ?  (3)  Which  is  the  best- 
known  country  in  northern  Africa  ?  (4)  Name  and  locate  its  two 
chief  cities.  (5)  Tell  about  the  Nile  River.  (6)  About  the  Suez 
Canal.  (7)  About  the  Sahara  Desert.  (8)  Where  is  the  Soudan? 
What  animals  live  there?  (9)  What  two  great  rivers  are  in  Central 
Africa?  (10)  How  are  goods  carried  from  place  to  place?  (11) 
What  influence  are  the  nations  of  Europe  having  upon  Africa? 
(12)  What  climate  lias  southern  Africa?  What  are  the  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  Timbuktu 
should  be  an  important  trade  centre  ?  (2)  The  caravans  composed 
of  camels  travel  at  the  rate  of  about  sixteen  miles  per  day.  How 
long  would  it  probably  take  for  a  caravan  to  travel  from  Timbuktu 
to  Tripoli  on  the  Mediterranean  coast?  (3)  One  camel  can  carry 
about  four  hundred  pounds.  How  many  tons  could  a  caravan  of 
six  hundred  camels  carry?  (4)  WThat  are  some  of  the  dangers  of  a 
journey  across  the  desert  ?  (5)  Beginning  with  the  western  Sahara, 
trace  the  desert  country  that  extends  across  Africa  and  Asia.  (6)  Why 
should  the  two  largest  cities  in  Africa  be  located  at  or  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Nile  River?  (7)  Find  some  object  made  of  ivory  and  show 
it  to  the  class.  (8)  Examine  an  ostrich  feather  and  a  diamond. 
(9)  Why  are  there  no  tributaries  to  the  northern  half  of  the  Nile? 
What  part  of  the  river,  then,  probably  has  most  water?  (10)  Find 
out  about  the  war  between  the  Boers  (those  living  in  the  South  Afri- 
can Republic  and  Orange  Free  State)  and  the  British.  (11)  Draw 
an  outline  map  of  Africa  and  put  in  the  main  rivers  and  cities. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  261. 


XXI.  AUSTRALIA,  THE  EAST  INDIES,  PHILIP- 
PINES, AND  THE  OTHER  ISLANDS  OF  THE 
PACIFIC 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Find  Australia  on  a  globe  and  show  how 
you  would  reach  it  from  New  York  in  a  vessel.  Through  what  waters 
would  you  pass?  (See  Fig.  120.)  (2)  From  San  Francisco?  From 
London?  (3)  In  what  part  are  most  of  the  mountains?  (4)  The 
rivers?  (5)  The  cities?  (6)  In  what  zones  is  Australia?  (7)  Will 
there  be  any  cold  winter  on  this  continent?  (8)  Look  on  a  globe  to 
see  what  other  continents  are  in  the  same  zones. 

(9)  What  are  the  principal  islands  of  the  East  Indies  ?  Find  Ba- 
tavia.  (10)  In  what  direction  are  the  Philippine  Islands  from  Austra- 
lia? (11)  Estimate  the  distance.  (12)  Find  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

I.  Australia.  —  The  names  of  the  three  eastern  divi- 
sions of  Australia  —  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Queensland  —  suggest  the  country  to  which  this  continent 
belongs.  Which  is  it  ?  As  has  been  done  in  Canada,  the 
various  sections  of  Australia  are  being  joined  into  one  con- 
federation similar  to  our  own  confederation  of  states. 

Australia  is  the  smallest  of  the  continents,  being  about 
the  size  of  the  United  States,  not  including  Alaska.  It 
is  a  low  plateau,  with  the  chief  mountain  range  on  the 
eastern  side.  These  mountains  have  much  influence  on 
the  climate  ;  for,  since  the  prevailing  winds  are  from,  the 
southeast,  as  they  reach  this  range,  and  rise  to  pass  over 
it,  they  grow  cooler  and  lose  most  of  their  moisture.  If 
the  mountains  were  on  the  western  side,  as  the  Andes  are 

249 


250  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

in  South  America,  nearly  the  whole  country  might  be  well 
watered,  like  the  Amazon  Valley.  As  it  is,  however,  the 
eastern  coast  of  Australia  has  abundant  rain,  while  farther 
westward  it  becomes  drier,  until,  at  a  distance  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  coast,  farming  is  almost 
impossible. 

What  about  the  country  farther  west  ?    With  what  part 
of  Africa  should  it  be  compared  ?     Where  must  the  chief 


FIG.  222. 
A  forest  of  tree  ferns  in  Australia. 

rivers  be?  Where  might  we  expect  to  find  salt  lakes? 
The  best  farm  land  ?  The  principal  cities  and  most  of  the 
people  ? 

Now  examine  the  map  to  see  if  you  are  right.  Where 
is  the  large  desert?  (It  is  dotted.)  What  is  the  name 
of  the  main  river?  There  is  often  so  little  rain,  even  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  Murray  River  Basin,  that  the  river 
grows  smaller  toward  its  mouth ;  and  its  chief  tributary, 
the  Darling,  dries  up  almost  entirely. 


AUSTRALIA  251 

When  the  English  began  to  colonize  this  country,  they  found  it 
inhabited  by  a  very  low  class  of  savages ;  and  the  plants  and  animals 
were  found  to  be  different  from  those  elsewhere.  A  great  part  of  the 
interior  was  covered  with  a  low  bush,  called  "scrub,"  having  hard, 
prickly  leaves  and  often  growing  so  dense  that  it  was  difficult  for  one 
to  make  his  way  through  it.  It  caused  the  country  to 
look  desolate  indeed. 

There  were  none  of  the  fierce  animals  common    to 
other  countries,  the  largest  being  the  kangaroo,  which  is 
furnished  with  a  sack  or  pouch  for  carrying  its  young. 
Instead  of  running  on  all  fours,  it  jumps  along  on  its 
hind  legs,  using  its  tail  for  support. 

Finding  the  plants  and  animals  of 
little  use,  the  English  began  to  im- 
port   some.       Sheep   were    taken 
there  and  found  to  thrive  ;    for 
the  temperature  is  so  mild   that 
they  are  not  exposed  to  cold, 
and  some  of  the  plants 
furnish  excellent 
food.    Conse- 
quently, great 
sheep  ranches 
or  sheep  runs,  as 
they  are  called  FlG-  223- 

there,  have  been  An  Australian  kangaroo, 

established.  The  best  sections  for  this  purpose  are  Vic- 
toria and  New  South  Wales,  where  wool  has  become  one 
of  the  chief  exports.  Indeed,  Australian  wool  is  the  best 
in  the  world. 

The  imported  cattle  have  likewise  multiplied,  so  that  hides  and 
meat  are  produced  in  abundance.  "Wheat  and  corn  also  flourish,  and 
many  fruits,  such  as  we  know,  are  now  plentiful  in  that  region. 


252  THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 

The  presence  of  mountains  suggests  that  metals  might 
exist  there,  which  is  the  case.  For  many  years  Australia 
has  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  gold-producing 
countries  of  the  world. 

Since  these  industries  have  become  very  extensive, 
especially  in  the  rainy  southeastern  part,  we  see  why 
several  great  cities  have  grown  up  in  that  section.  The 
largest  is  MELBOURNE,  the  capital  of  Victoria,  which  is 
nearly  as  large  as  Boston.  The  next  is  SYDNEY,  the  capi- 
tal of  New  South  Wales,  nearly  as  large ;  and  the  third 
is  ADELAIDE,  the  capital  of  South  Australia. 

An  island,  Tasmania,  just  south  of  Australia,  is  owned 
by  the  British,  and  has  almost  the  same  industries  as  Vic- 
toria. 

The  New  Zealand  Islands  are  also  British,  and  in  the 
climate  and  the  customs  of  the  people  they  resemble 
Australia.  What  is  the  capital  ?  What  other  city  is 
found  there  ?  Do  you  remember  the  geysers  for  which 
the  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  noted  (p.  178)  ?  New 
Zealand  and  Iceland  are  the  only  two  other  parts  of  the 
world  where  geysers  are  found. 

Manufacturing  is  not  yet  greatly  developed,  so  that 
quantities  of  wool,  hides,  metals,  etc.,  are  exported,  going 
mainly  to  England,  since  these  are  colonies  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. Some  of  the  imports  that  must  be  received  in  return 
you  can  probably  name. 

II.  The  East  Indies.  —  Between  Australia  and  Asia  are 
a  large  number  of  islands,  many  of  them  too  small  to 
place  upon  the  map.  What  are  the  names  of  some  of  the 
largest  of  this  group,  or  archipelago,  known  as  the  East 
Indies?  The  one  that  you  have  probably  heard  about 
most  often  is  Java,  from  which  the  Java  coffee  comes. 


AUSTRALIA 


253 


Among  the  forests  of  these  islands  are  many  different 
kinds  of  valuable  tropical  woods.  Sugar,  tobacco,  pepper, 
spices,  and  precious  stones  are  other  valuable  products. 

These  islands,  like  those  of  the  Japanese  Empire,  are 
the  crests  of  mountains  in  the  sea.  Among  them  are 
many  very  active  volcanoes,  some  of  them  having  caused 
terrible  destruction  by  their  frightful  eruptions.  The 
islands  belong  to  European  countries,  and  you  will  find 
the  names  of  these  countries  marked  on  the  map. 

III.  The  Philippine  Islands.  —  The  principal  city  on  the 
Philippine  Islands  is  MANILA,  on  Luzon  Island,  where 
Admiral  Dewey  de- 
stroyed the  Spanish 
fleet. 

Notice  (Fig.  203) 
that  they  lie  between 
the  Japanese  Islands 
and  the  East  Indies, 
both  of  which  were 
said  to  be  mountain 
ranges  in  the  sea. 
The  Philippines  are 
also  mountains,  form- 
ing a  part  of  the 
same  chain. 

There  are  valuable 
kinds  of  wood  in  the  forests,  and  many  mineral  deposits  ; 
but  these  were  never  much  used  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
chief  products  have  been  sugar,  tobacco,  and  hemp,  which 
is  used  in  making  ropes.  Now  that  the  United  States  is 
in  control  of  the  islands,  it  is  probable  that  their  mineral 
and  other  resources  will  be  developed. 


FIG.  224. 

A  native  house  in  Manila.  In  order  to  be  well 
above  the  damp  ground,  the  people  live  in 
the  upper  part.  Notice  the  bamboo  fence. 


254  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

On  these  islands  dwell  several  different  races.  There 
are  still  many  savages  there,  especially  in  the  dense  for- 
ests of  the  interior  (Fig.  99).  Some  of  them  are  called 
Negritos  or  little  negroes.  On  the  Sulu  Islands  are 
Mohammedans  called  Moros.  The  Tagalogs  belong  to 
the  more  advanced  tribes,  who  have  learned  the  arts  of 
civilization  from  the  Spaniards. 

IV.  Islands  of  the  Pacific.  —  There  are  many  hundreds 
of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  some  of  them  being  tiny 
coral  islands,  others  large  and  mountainous.  They  are 
all  located  where  mountain  ranges  or  volcanic  peaks  rise 
from  the  great  plain  of  the  ocean  floor. 

Find  the  Fiji  Islands.  They  are  also  British.  What 
other  group  of  small  islands  do  you  see  in  that  region? 
Find  the  Samoan  Islands.  One  of  these  belongs  to  the 
United  States.  What  large  island  is  just  north  of  Aus- 
tralia ?  In  what  zone  does  it  lie  ?  One  part  is  British, 
one  part  Dutch,  and  one  part  German.  All  of  its  prod- 
ucts are  tropical,  and  it  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest 
and  inhabited  by  fierce  savages.  Very  few  Europeans 
live  there. 

Among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  we  must  not  forget  to 
mention  the  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS,  for  they  now  form  a 
part  of  our  own  country.  They  are  situated  in  the  mid- 
Pacific  on  the  way  from  San  Francisco  to  Australia,  and 
consist  of  a  number  of  islands,  the  largest  being  Hawaii. 
All  of  them  are  volcanic,  and  on  Hawaii  are  two  of  the 
largest  volcanoes  in  the  world  (Fig.  101).  Being  in  the 
torrid  zone,  their  climate  is  warm  enough  for  sugar  raising, 
and  this  is  one  of  the  principal  industries  of  the  islands. 
Where  else  have  we  found  this  industry  ?  HONOLULU  is 
the  capital  and  largest  city. 


AUSTRALIA  255 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS   AND  SUGGESTIONS 

I.  Australia.     QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  To  what  country  does  Australia 
belong?     (2)  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  United  States? 

(3)  How  does  the  mountain  range  on  the  east  affect  the  climate? 

(4)  Which,  then,  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  country?     (5)  Tell 
about  the  native  plants  and  animals.     (6)  What  animals  and  plants 
have  been  imported  ?    (7)  Wh at  industries  have  resulted  ?    (8)  Name 
the  principal  exports.     (9)  Locate  the  chief  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (10)  Sketch  Australia,  putting  in  the  Murray 
River  and  the  principal  cities.  (11)  What  other  places  in  the  world 
are  noted  for  sheep  and  cattle  raising?  (12)  For  gold  mining? 
(13)  Read  about  the  great  trouble  the  imported  rabbits  have  caused 
in  Australia.  (14)  Where  are  the  desert  countries  of  the  world? 
Make  a  sketch  map  to  show  them. 

II.  East  Indies.     QUESTIONS.  —  (15)  Name  several  of  the  larger 
islands  of  the  East  Indies.     (16)  What  are  the  products  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (17)  WThy  were  they  named  the  East  Indies? 
(18)  Find  what  spices  are  used  in  cooking  at  your  home.  (19)  Make 
a  collection  of  spices,  trying  to  find  where  each  kind  came  from. 
(20)  See  on  the  map  (Fig.  221)  to  what  European  countries  each  of 
the  larger  islands  belongs.  (21)  Find  where  the  tea  and  coffee  used 
at  your  home  came  from.  By  what  route  are  they  probably  brought? 

III.  Philippine  Islands.    QUESTIONS. —  (22)  Where  are  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  ?     (23)  Name  the  principal  city.     (24)  What  has  re- 
cently made  it  famous?     (25)  What  are  the  names  of  the  largest 
islands?      (26)  How  far  is  Manila  from  China?      (27)  What  races 
occupy  these  islands  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (28)  Collect  some  Manila  hemp  rope.  (29)  Find 
out  about  the  battle  of  Manila  Bay  and  also  about  the  war  with  the 
Filipinos.  (30)  Collect  pictures  from  the  Philippines. 

IV.  Islands  of  the  Pacific.     QUESTIONS.  —  (31)  Find  Tasmania ; 
New  Zealand ;  the  Fiji  Islands.     (32)  What  large  island  lies  north 
of  Australia?     Tell  about  it.     (33)  Tell  about  the. Hawaiian  Islands. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (34)  Find  out  something  about  the -Fiji  Islands. 
(35)  About  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  (36)  Find  out  some  events  that 
have  happened  on  the  Samoan  Islands. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  261. 


BOOKS   OF   REFERENCE1 


McM.  means  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York;  Ginn,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass. ;  A.  B.  C.,  American  Book  Co.,  New  York ;  S.  B.  C.,  Silver,  Burdett  & 
Co.,  New  York;  Heath,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.;  E.  P.  C.,  Educa- 
tional Publishing  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.;  Scribner,  C.  Scribner  &  Sons,  New 
York. 


METHODS,  AIDS,  ETC. 

Geikie,  "The  Teaching  of  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.60);  King, 
"Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography"  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $1.20); 
Parker,  "  How  to  Study  Geography  "  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York, 
$1.50);  Nichols,  "Topics  in  Geography"  (Heath,  $0.65);  Trotter, 
"Lessons  in  the  New  Geography"  (Heath,  $1.00) ;  McMurry,  "Spe- 
cial Method  in  Geography  "  (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Blooming- 
ton,  111.,  $0.50)  ;  McCormick,  "  Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography  " 
(same  publisher,  $0.50) ;  McMurry,  "  A  Course  of  Study  in  Geogra- 
phy "  (Herbartian  Society,  University  of  Chicago)  ;  Frye,  "  The  Child 
and  Nature "  (Ginn,  $0.80) ;  Frye,  "  Teacher's  Manual  of  Methods 
in  Geography "  (Ginn,  $0.50) ;  Redway,  "  Manual  of  Geography " 
(Heath,  $0.65)  ;  Morton,  "  Lessons  on  the  Continents  "  (E.  L.  Kellogg 
&  Co.,  New  York,  $0.20);  McCormick,  "Practical  Work  in  Geog- 
raphy" (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  111.,  $0.80). 

Journal  of  School  Geography  (R.  E.  Dodge,  Teachers'  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City,  $1.00  per  year) ;  National 

1  These  references  are  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive,  but,  rather,  sug- 
gestive. Most,  if  not  all,  are  to  first-class  sources.  The  attempt  has  been 
to  make  few  references,  assuming  that  the  teacher  will  have  others  in 
mind.  While  there  may  seem  to  be  many  here,  a  careful  examination 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  really  few  books  are  referred  to.  Some  of  those 
mentioned  at  the  end  of  Part  I  will  be  found  useful  for  Part  II  also. 

256 


REFERENCES  257 

Geographic  Magazine  (Washington,  D.  C.,  $2.00;  includes  membership 
to  Society) ;  Bulletin,  American  Bureau  of  Geography  (Winona,  Minn., 
$1.00;  includes  membership  to  Bureau);  "The  Statesman's  Year 
Book,"  published  each  year,  gives  latest  statistics,  etc.  (McM.,  $3.00)  ; 
Mill,  "  Hints  to  Teachers  and  Students  on  the  Choice  of  Geographical 
Books  "  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25) ;  Ritter,  "  Com- 
parative Geography"  (A.  B.  C.,  $1.00);  Shaler,  "Nature  and  Man  in 
America"  (Scribner,  $1.50);  Guyot,  "Earth  and  Man"  (Scribner, 
$1.75)  ;  Champlin,  "  Cyclopedia  of  Common  Things  "  (H.  Holt  &  Co., 
New  York,  $2.50);  Champlin,  "Cyclopedia  of  Persons  and  Places" 
(same  publisher,  $2.50)  ;  Murche,  "  Science  Readers  "  (McM.,  I  and 
II,  $0.25  each,  III  and  IV,  $0.40  each,  V  and  VI,  $0.50  each) ;  Lange, 
"  Handbook  of  Nature  Study  "  (McM.,  $1.00)  ;  Yonge,  "  Little  Lucy's 
Wonderful  Globe"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Strong,  "All  the  Year  Round" 
(Ginn,  three  volumes,  $0.30  each)  ;  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Readers" 
(A.  B.  C.,  Vol.  II,  Asia,  $0.60 ;  volume  on  North  America,  $0.60)  ; 
Guyot,  "  Geographical  Reader  "  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Conner,  "  Commer- 
cial Geography "  (McM.,  $0.75) ;  Tilden,  "  Grammar  School  (Com- 
mercial) Geography  "  (T.  R.  Shewell  &  Co.,  Boston,  $1.25)  ;  Chisholm, 
"  Commercial  Geography  "  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00)  ; 
Mill,  "General  Geography"  (McM., $0.90)  ;  Lyde,  "Man  and  His  Mar- 
kets" (McM.,  $0.50);  Herbertson,  "Man  and  His  Work"  (McM., 
$0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "  American  History  Stories  "  (E.  P.  C.,  four  volumes, 
$0.36  each)  ;  Pratt,  «  Stories  of  Colonial  Children  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ; 
Shaler,  "First  Book  in  Geology"  (Heath,  $0.60);  Davis,  "Physical 
Geography"  (Ginn,  $1.25) ;  Tarr,  "Elementary  Geology"  (McM., 
$1.40)  ;  Tarr,  "Elementary  Physical  Geography  "(McM.,  $1.40)  ;  Tarr, 
"First  Book  of  Physical  Geography"  (McM.,  $1.10).  Excellent 
selections  may  also  be  found  in  many  school  readers. 

Section  I.  Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth.  —  Andrews,  "  Seven  Little 
Sisters,"  section  on  "  The  Ball  Itself  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Irving,  "  Life 
and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus"  (G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New 
York,  $1.75)  ;  for  Columbus,  Magellan,  etc.,  see  various  school 
histories.  Also,  poem  on  "  Columbus "  by  Tennyson  D'Anvers, 
"  Science  Ladders,"  Vol.  I  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  Gee,  "  Short  Studies 
in  Nature  Knowledge,"  section  on  "  The  Great  Globe  Itself  "  (McM., 
$1.10);  Ritter,  "Comparative  Geography,"  First  Part  (A.  B.  C., 


258  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Section  II.  Daily  Motion  of  the  Earth  and  its  Results.  —  Redway, 
"Manual  of  Geography,"  Chapter  VI  (Heath,  $0.65);  "Daybreak" 
(poem),  Longfellow. 

Section  III.  The  Zones.  —  Eggleston,  "Stories  of  American  Life 
and  Adventure,"  section  on  "Adventures  in  Alaska"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50) ; 
Andrews,  "  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  sections  on  "  The  Little  Brown  Baby," 
"  Agoonack,  the  Esquimau  Sister,"  and  " How  Agoonack  Lives"  (Ginn, 
$0.50)  ;  Schwatka,  "  The  Children  of  the  Cold "  (E.  P.  C.,  $1.25)  ; 
Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  XXIX  and  XXX  (Ginn, 
$1.00)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  First  Book, 
Part  2  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.50). 

Section  IV.  Heat  within  the  Earth  and  its  Results.  —  Tarr,  "First 
Book  of  Physical  Geography,"  Chapters  I  (p.  8),  XIX,  and  XX 
(McM.,  $1.10)  ;  Trotter,  "Lessons  in  the  New  Geography,"  pp.  16-17 
(Heath,  $1.00) ;  Redway,  "Manual  of  Geography,"  Chapter  VII 
(Heath,  $0.65)  ;  Kingsley,  "  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,"  section  on 
"  Volcanoes  "  (McM.,  $1.00)  ;  Gee,  "  Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowl- 
edge," Chapter  XI  (McM.,  $1.10);  Kelly,  "Leaves  from  Nature's 
Story  Book,"  Vol.  Ill,  "The  Records  of  the  Rocks"  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40). 

Section  V.  The  Continents  and  Oceans.  —  Andrews,  "  Seven  Little 
Sisters"  (Ginn,  $0.50);  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel"  (Ginn, 
$1.00) ;  Gee,  "  Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowledge,"  Chapter  IV, 
"The  Sea"  (McM.,  $1.10);  Kelly,  "Leaves  from  Nature's  Story 
Book,"  Vol.  Ill,  "  A  Visit  to  the  Bottom  of  the  Ocean  "  (E.  P.  C., 
$0.40);  Shaler,  "The  Story  of  Our  Continent,"  "Section  on  Coral 
Reefs"  (Ginn,  $0.75);  Tarr,  "Elementary  Geology,"  p.  251  (McM., 
$1.40)  ;  D'Anvers,  "  Science  Ladders,"  Vol.  Ill,  Lesson  VIII  (E.  P. 
C.,  $0.40).  Poems:  Shelley,  "A  Vision  of  the  Sea";  Longfellow, 
"  The  Secret  of  the  Sea  " ;  Longfellow,  "  The  Wreck  of  the  Hespe- 
rus"; Holmes,  "The  Chambered  Nautilus";  Byron,  "The  Ocean." 

Section  VI.     Maps.  —  For  References,  see  bottom  of  page  110. 

Section  VII.  North  America.  —  Shaler,  "The  Story  of  Our  Conti- 
nent "  (Ginn,  $0.75) ;  Lyde,  "  North  America  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shep- 
ard, Boston,  $0.72). 

Section  VIII.  The  United  States.  —  Brooks,  "Century  Book  for 
Young  Americans "  (The  Century  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50)  ;  Brooks, 
"The  Story  of  the  United  States"  (The  Lothrop  Publishing  Co., 


REFERENCES  259 

Boston,  $1.50)  ;  Channing,  "  Students'  History  of  the  United  States  " 
(McM.,  $1.40)  ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  I  and  XXV 
(Ginn,  $1.00) ;  Gannett,  "  The  United  States,"  Stanford's  Com- 
pendium of  Geography  (Scribner,  $4.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque 
Geographical  Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.72)  ; 
"  Our  Country  "  (poern),  Holmes. 

Section  IX.  New  England.  —  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life 
and  Adventure,"  "  Stories  of  Whaling  "  and  "  A  Whaling  Song  "  (A. 
B.  C.,  $0.50);  Rocheleau,  "Great  American  Industries,"  Book  I, 
"Granite,"  "Marble,"  and  "Slate";  Book  II,  "Cotton  Manufactur- 
ing" and  "Lumbering"  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  each  $0.50);  Chase 
and  Clow,  "  Stories  of  Industry,"  Vol.  I,  "  Lumbering,"  "  Ship  Build- 
ing," "Marble  and  Granite,"  "Slate  and  Brick";  Vol.  II,  "Manufac- 
turing," "  Fisheries,"  and  "  Whaling  "  (E.  P.  C.,  each  $0.40)  ;  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Third  and  Fourth  Books 
(Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  each  $0.56) ;  Wilson,  "  Nature  Study  in 
Elementary  Schools,"  Second  Reader,  "The  Tree,"  by  Bjornsen 
(McM.,  $0.35).  Poems:  Whittier,  " Mogg  Megone " ;  "Pentucket"; 
"  The  Bridal  of  Pennacook  " ;  «  The  Merrimack  " ;  "  The  Norsemen  " ; 
Longfellow,  "  The  Woods  in  Winter";  "The  Building  of  the  Ship"; 
"  The  River  Charles  " ;  Emerson,  "  Boston." 

Section  X.  Middle  Atlantic  States.  —  Chase  and  Clow,  "  Stories  of 
Industry,"  Vol.  I  and  Vol.  II,  various  stories  on  Iron,  Coal,  Mining, 
Manufacturing,  Farming,  etc.  (E.  P.  C.,  each  $0.40) ;  Rocheleau, 
"  Great  American  Industries,"  Book  I,  sections  on  "  Coal  Mining," 
"Natural  Gas,"  "Petroleum,"  and  "Iron"  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago, 
$0.50)  ;  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure,"  sec- 
tion on  "A  Story  of  Niagara"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Pictur- 
esque Geographical  Readers,"  Third  and  Fourth  Books  (Lee  & 
Shepard,  Boston,  each  $0.56). 

Section  XI.  The  Southern  States.  —  Rocheleau,  "  Great  American 
Industries,"  Book  II,  section  on  "  Cotton  and  Sugar  "  (A.  Flanagan, 
Chicago,  $0.50);  King,  "The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers," 
Fourth  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.56). 

Section  XII.  The  Central  States.  — Garland,  "Boy  Life  on  the 
Prairie  "  (McM.,  $1.50)  ;  McMurry,  "  Pioneer  Stories  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley"  (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  $0.50) ; 
Rocheleau,  "  Great  American  Industries,"  Book  II,  sections  on  "  Grain 


260  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Raising,"  "  Wheat  Raising,"  and  "  Milling "  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago, 
$0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Fourth  Book 
(Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.56).  Poems:  "When  the  Frost  is  on 
the  Punkin,"  Riley;  "Knee  Deep  in  June,"  Riley;  "The  Prairies," 
Bryant ;  "  The  Hunter  of  the  Prairies,"  Bryant. 

Section  XIII.  The  Western  States.  —  Ballou,  "Footprints  of 
Travel,"  Chapter  XXV  (Ginn,  $1.00);  Eggleston,  "Stories  of  Ameri- 
can Life  and  Adventure,"  sections  on  "How  Fremont  Crossed  the 
Mountains,"  "The  Finding  of  Gold  in  California,"  "Descending  the 
Grand  Canon,"  and  several  Indian  stories  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50) ;  Chase  and 
Clow,  "  Stories  of  Industry,"  Vol.  I,  several  sections  on  "  Mines  and 
Mining "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical 
Readers,"  Fifth  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.56)  ;  "  The  Pass  of 
the  Sierra"  (poem),  Whittier;  "In  the  Yosemite  Valley,"  Joaquin 
Miller. 

Section  XIV.  Alaska.  —  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapter 
XXVI  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Ad- 
venture," "Adventures  in  Alaska"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50). 

Section  XV.  Countries  North  of  the  United  States.  — Coe,  "Our 
American  Neighbors,"  Chapters  I-XII  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Lyde,  "  A 
Geography  of  North  America "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Dawson,  "  Canada 
and  Newfoundland,"  Stanford's  Compendium  (Scribner,  $4.50)  ;  An- 
drews, "  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  the  two  sections  on  Agoonack  (Ginn, 
$0.50);  Schwatka,  "The  Children  of  the  Cold"  (E.  P.  C.,  $1.25); 
Gee,  "  Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowledge "  (McM.,  $1.10)  ;  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shep- 
ard, Boston,  $0.72)  ;  "  An  Arctic  Vision,"  Bret  Hart ;  "  Evangeline," 
Longfellow. 

Section  XVI.  Countries  South  of  the  United  States.  —  Coe,  "  Our 
American  Neighbors,"  Chapters  XIII-XVII  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Conk- 
lin,  "  Guide  to  Mexico  "  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50)  ;  Lyde, 
"  A  Geography  of  North  America  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Ballou,  "  Foot- 
prints of  Travel,"  Chapters  XXIII,  XXIV,  XXV,  XXVII,  and 
XXVIII  (Ginn,  $1.00);  King,  "The  Picturesque  Geographical 
Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.72). 

Section  XVII.  South  America.  —  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel," 
Chapters  XXIX-XXXI  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Coe,  "  Our  American  Neigh- 
bors" (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60). 


REFERENCES  261 

Section  XVIII.  Europe.  —  Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  Europe  "  (McM., 
$0.50)  ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  X-XXII  (Giun, 
$1.00)  ;  Coe,  "Northern  Europe"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "Northern 
Europe  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  the  British  Isles  " 
(McM.,  $0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Sixth 
Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  England " 
(E.  P.  C.,  $0.40);  Andrews,  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  "The  Little 
Mountain  Maiden,"  and  "Louise"  (Ginn,  $0.50).  Poems:  Alice 
Carey,  "  The  Leak  in  the  Dike  " ;  Longfellow,  "  Venice  "  ;  "  The  Bel- 
fry of  Bruges";  "Nuremberg";  "To  the  River  Rhone";  "To  the 
Avon."  Joaquin  Miller,  "  Sunrise  in  Venice  "  ;  "  In  a  Gondola  " ;  "  To 
Florence  " ;  Shelley,  "  Ode  to  Naples." 

Section  XIX.  Asia.  —  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters 
III,  VIII,  and  IX  (Ginn,  $1.00);  Andrews,  "Seven  Little  Sisters," 
"The  Story  of  Pen-se,"  also  "Gemila"  (Ginn,  $0.50);  Smith,  "Life 
in  Asia"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  India"  (E.  P.  C., 
$0.40);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  China"  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40).  Poems  by 
Whittier:  "The  Holy  Land";  "Palestine";  "The  Pipes  of  Luck- 
now." 

Section  XX.  Africa.  —  Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  Africa"  (McM., 
$0.50) ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  IX  and  X  (Ginn, 
$1.00);  Badlam,  "Views  in  Africa"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.72);  Andrews, 
"  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  section  on  "  The  Little  Dark  Girl "  and 
"Gemila"  (Ginn,  $0.50). 

Section  XXI.  Australia,  etc. —  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel," 
Chapters  II,  IV,  V,  VI,  VII  (Ginn,  $1.00);  Kellogg,  "Australia  and 
the  Islands  of  the  Sea"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.68);  Pratt,  "Stories  of  Aus- 
tralasia" (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40).  Poem,  "Western  Australia,"  O'Reilly. 


APPENDIX 


CONTINENTS  AND   PRINCIPAL   COUNTRIES 

NOTE.  — The  figures  1897,  1890,  etc.,  refer  to  the  year  in  which  the 
estimate  was  made.  Most  of  the  figures  are  obtained  from  the  "  States- 
man's Year  Book"  for  1899,  or  from  the  "  Century  Atlas." 


Area  in  Square  Miles 

Population 

NORTH  AMERICA 

6,446,000 

1897 

94,000,000 

United  States  (with  Alaska) 

3,602,990 

1890 

62,840,835 

Mexico           .... 

767,005 

1895 

12,619,959 

Canada          .... 

3,653,946 

1891 

4,833,239 

Central  America  . 

175,696 

1897 

3,271,426 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

6,837,000 

1897 

40,000,000 

Brazil    

3,209,878 

1892 

18,000,000 

Argentina      .... 

1,778,195 

1895 

3,954,911 

449,000 

1897 

3,000.000 

Chile     

290,829 

1895 

2,527,320 

EUROPE        

3  850,000 

1897 

374,000,000 

Russia  

2,095,616 

1897 

106,191,795 

German  Empire    . 

208,830 

1895 

52,279,901 

Austria-Hungary  . 

240,942 

1890 

41,359,204 

France  ..... 

204,092 

1896 

38,517,975 

British  Isles  .... 

120,979 

1891 

38,104,975 

Italy      

110,646 

1898 

31,667,946 

Spain     

197,670 

1887 

17,565,632 

Turkey  in  Europe 

62,744 

1898 

5,711,000 

ASIA  (with  islands)     . 

17,255,890 

1897 

831,000,000 

Chinese  Empire    . 

4,218,401 

1897 

402,680,000 

India     ..... 

1,559,603 

1891 

287,123,350 

Japan    

147,655 

1896 

42,708,264 

Turkey  in  Asia 

650,097 

1898 

16,823,500 

Siberia  

4,833,496 

1897 

5,727,090 

AFRICA        

11,508,793 

1897 

170,000,000 

Kongo  Free  State 

900,000 

1898 

14,000,000 

Egypt    

400,000 

1897 

9,734,405 

Cape  Colony 

276,925 

1891 

1,766,040 

South  African  Republic 

119,139 

1898 

1,094,156 

262 

APPENDIX 


263 


Area  in  Square  Miles 

Population 

AUSTRALIA          ....       2,946,691       1891 

3,036,570 

New  South  Wales         .        .           310,700        1898 

l.:M5,800 

Victoria         ....             87,884         1898 

1,169,434 

Queensland            .        .        .           668,497        1897 

484,700 

South  Australia    .         .        .           903,690        1897 

358,224 

SIZE  OF   THE   EARTH 

LENGTH  OF  THE  EARTH'S  Axis  at  equator  (miles)  . 

7,926 

LENGTH  OF  THE  EQUATOR  (miles)     .... 

24,902 

THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE  (square  miles) 

196,940,000 

Pacific  Ocean  (square  miles)           .... 

55,660,000 

Atlantic  Ocean  (square  miles)        .... 

33,720,000 

Antarctic  Ocean  and  the  great  southern  sea  sur- 

rounding the  south  pole  (square  miles) 

30,605,000 

Indian  Ocean  (square  miles)          .... 

16,720,000 

Arctic  Ocean  (square  miles)           .... 

4,781,000 

The  sea  (square  miles)    ..... 

141,486,000 

AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF    THE   UNITED   STATES 

Area  in  Square  Miles 

Population 

Alabama     ....          52,250        1890 

1,513,017 

Alaska        ....        577,390        1890 

31,795 

Arizona       ....         113,020        1890 

59,620 

Arkansas    ....          53,850        1890 

1,128,179 

California  ....         158,360        1890 

1,208,130 

Colorado     ....         103,925        1890 

412,198 

Connecticut         .        .        .            4,990         1890 

746,258 

Cuba  41,655        1894 

1,631,696 

Delaware    ....            2,050        1890 

168.493 

District  of  Columbia  .         .                 70         1890 

230,392 

Florida        ....          58,680        1895 

464,639 

Georgia       ....          59,475        1890 

1,837,353 

Hawaiian  Islands        .         .             6,640         1897 

102,020 

Idaho          ....          84,800        1890 

84,385 

Illinois        ....          56,650        1890 

3,826,351 

Indiana       ....          36,350        1890 

2,192,404 

Indian  Territory         .        .          31,400        1890 

186,490 

Iowa   56,025        1895 

2,058.069 

Kansas        ....          82,080        1895 

1,334,734 

Kentucky    ....          40,400        1890 

1,858,635 

Louisiana    ....          48,720        1890 

1,118,587 

264 


APPENDIX 


Maine 
Maryland    . 
Massachusetts     . 
Michigan    . 
Minnesota  . 
Mississippi . 
Missouri      . 
Montana 
Nebraska    . 
Nevada 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey 
New  Mexico 
New  York  . 
North  Carolina  . 
North  Dakota     . 
Ohio   . 
Oklahoma  . 
Oregon 
Pennsylvania 
Philippine  Islands 
Porto  Rico . 
Rhode  Island 
South  Carolina  . 
South  Dakota     . 
Tennessee  . 
Texas . 
Utah   . 
Vermont 
Virginia 
Washington 
West  Virginia 
Wisconsin 
Wyoming    . 


Area  in  Square 

Miles 

Population 

33,040 

1890 

661,086 

12,210 

1890 

1,042,390 

8,315 

1895 

2,500,183 

58,915 

1890 

2,093.889 

83,365 

1895 

1,574,619 

46,810 

1890 

1,289,600 

69,415 

1890 

2,679,184 

146,080 

1890 

132,159 

77,510 

1890 

1,058,910 

110,700 

1890 

45,761 

9,305 

1890 

376,530 

7,815 

1895 

1,673,196 

122,580 

1890 

153,593 

49.170 

1890 

5,997.853 

52,250 

1890 

1,617,947 

70,795 

1890 

182,719 

41,060 

1890 

3,672,316 

39,030 

1890 

61,834 

96,030 

1890 

313,767 

45,215 

1890 

5,258,014 

114,326 

1897 

7,000,000 

3,550 

1887 

813,937 

1,250 

1890 

345,506 

30,570 

1890 

1,151,149 

77,650 

1895 

330,975 

42,050 

1890 

1,767,518 

265,780 

1890 

2,235,523 

84,970 

1890 

207,905 

9,565 

1890 

332,422 

42,450 

1890 

1,655,980 

69,180 

1890 

349,390 

24,780 

1890 

762,794 

56,040 

1890 

1,686,880 

97,890 

1890 

60,705 

TWENTY-FIVE   LARGEST   CITIES  OF   THE   UNITED 
STATES 

NOTE.  — The  great  increase  in  size  of  New  York  is  due  to  the  joining 
of  Brooklyn  and  other  cities  to  it,  making  Greater  New  York. 


1.  New  York,  N.  Y. 

2,  Chicago,  111. 


Estimated  Population, 
Jan.  1, 1899 

.,  3,549,558      . 
.  1,950,000       . 


Population, 
Census  of  1890 

.  1,515,301 

.  1,099,850 


APPENDIX 


3.  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

4.  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

5.  Boston,  Mass.     . 

6.  Baltimore,  Aid.   . 

7.  Cincinnati,  O.     . 

8.  Cleveland,  O.      . 

9.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.     . 

10.  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

11.  Detroit,  Mich.     . 

12.  Pittsburg,  Pa.     . 

13.  New  Orleans,  La. 

14.  Washington,  D.  C. 

15.  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

16.  Newark,  N.  J.     . 

17.  Louisville,  Ky     . 

18.  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

19.  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

20.  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

21.  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

22.  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

23.  St.  Paul,  Minn.  . 

24.  Providence,  R.  I. 

25.  Denver,  Col. 


Estimated  Population, 
January  1, 1899 

.  1,350,000  . 

.  623,000  . 

.  530,000  . 

.  500,000  . 

.  405,000  . 

.  400,000  . 

.  400,000  . 

.  350,000  . 

.  350,000  . 

.  315,000  . 

.  300,000  . 

.  280,000  . 

.  280,000  . 

.  250,000  . 

.  225,000  . 

.  200,000  . 

.  200,000  . 

.  200,000  . 

.  200,000  . 

.  177,000  . 

.  175,000  . 

.  167,000  . 

.  165,000  . 


Population, 
Census  of  1890 

1,046,964 
451,770 
148,477 

434,1 :;!/ 
296,1M)S 
261,  .",:>:; 
255,664 
298,997 
205,876 
238,617 
242,039 
230,392 
204,468 
181,830 
161,129 
164,738 
163,003 
132,716 
105,436 
133,896 
133,156 
132,146 
106,713 


CITIES  OF   THE  UNITED   STATES  AND  ITS  DEPEND- 
ENCIES MENTIONED   IN   THIS   BOOK 


Albany,  N.  Y.    . 
Allegheny,  Pa.  . 
Annapolis,  Md. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Baltimore,  Md.  . 
Bangor,  Me. 
Birmingham,  Ala. 
Boston,  Mass.    . 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.    . 
Butte,  Mont.      . 
Cambridge,  Mass. 
Camden,  N.  J.   . 
Charleston,  S.  C. 


Estimated  Population,  Mainly 
January  1,  1899 

.       100,000  . 

.   125,000  . 

.   118,000  . 

.   500,000  . 

27,000  . 

60,000  (1897) 

.   530,000  . 

.   75,000  . 

.  400,000  . 

50,000  . 

89,276  . 

.   65,000  . 

65,000  . 


Population, 
Census  of  1890 

94,923 

105,287 

7,604 

65,533 

434,439 
19,103 
26,178 

448,477 
48,866 

255,664 
10,723 
70,028 
58,313 
54,955 


266 


APPENDIX 


Estimated  Population, 

Population, 

January  1,  1899 

Census  of  1890 

Chattanooga,  Term.  . 

.       40,000      . 

29,100 

Chicago,  111. 

.  1,950,000      . 

.  1,099,850 

Cincinnati,  O.    . 

.      405,000      . 

.      296,908 

Cleveland,  O.     . 

.     400,000      . 

.      261,353 

Columbus,  O. 

.      135,000      . 

88,150 

Dallas,  Tex. 

.       50,000      . 

.       38,067 

Denver,  Col. 

.      165,000      . 

.      106,713 

Detroit,  Mich.    . 

.      350.000      . 

.     205,876 

Duluth,  Minn.   . 

60,000      . 

33,115 

Fall  River,  Mass. 

.      103,000      . 

74,398 

Galveston,  Tex. 

71,250      . 

.       29,084 

Gloucester,  Mass. 

29,000      . 

.       24,651 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

.      100,000      . 

60,278 

Harrisburg,  Pa. 

60,000      . 

.       39,385 

Hartford,  Ct. 

75,000      . 

53,230 

Havana,  Cuba   . 

.      200,000  (1894)  . 



Honolulu    . 

.       28,920  (1896)  . 



Indianapolis,  Ind. 

.      200,000      . 

.      105,436 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 

.       35,000      . 

17,201 

Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

.      200,000      . 

.      163,003 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

.      200,000      . 

.      132,716 

Knoxville,  Tenn. 

50,000  (1897)  . 

.       22,535 

Lawrence,  Mass. 

58,000      . 

44,654 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

.      115,000      . 

50,395 

Louisville,  Ky.  . 

.      225,000      . 

.      161,129 

Lowell,  Mass.     . 

87,000      . 

.       77,696 

Lynn,  Mass. 

67,000      . 

55,727 

Manchester,  N.  H.     . 

60,000      . 

44,126 

Manila,  Philippines  . 

.      154,062  (1887)  . 



Memphis,  Tenn. 

.      110,000      . 

64,495 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

.      280,000      . 

.      204,468 

Minneapolis,  Minn.   . 

.      200,000      . 

.      164,738 

Mobile,  Ala. 

40,000      . 

31,076 

Newark,  N.  J.    . 

.      250,000 

.      181,830 

New  Bedford,  Mass.  . 

59,000      . 

.       40,733 

New  Haven,  Ct. 

.      115,000      . 

81,298 

New  Orleans,  La. 

.      .  .      300,000       . 

.      242,039 

New  York,  N.  Y.       . 

.  3,549,558      . 

.  1,515,301 

Norfolk,  Va.      . 

65,000      . 

.       34,871 

Ogden,  Utah 



14,889 

Omaha,  Neb. 

.      160,000      . 

.     140,452 

Paters  on,  N.  J.  . 

.       97,344  (1895)  . 

.       78,347 

Pensacola,  Fla. 

16,000       . 

11,750 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

.  1,350,000      . 

.  1,046,964 

Pittsburg,  Pa.    . 

.     315,000      . 

.     238,617 

APPENDIX 


267 


Estimated  Population, 

Population, 

January  1,  1899 

Census  of  1890 

Portland,  Me.     . 

45,000      . 

.       36,425 

Portland,  Ore.    . 

.      100,000       . 

.       46,385 

Providence,  II.  I. 

.      167,000      . 

.      132,146 

Pueblo,  Col. 

28,250  (181)7) 

24,558 

Reading,  Pa. 

90,700      . 

58^661 

Richmond,  Va.           .    *    .' 

.      100,000      . 

81,388 

Rochester,  N.  Y. 

.      177,000      ..      . 

.      133,896 

Rutland,  Vt. 



11,760 

Saginaw,  Mich. 

60,000      . 

46,322 

623  000 

451,770 

St.  Paul,  Minn. 

.      175,000      . 

.      133',156 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

48,076  (1895)  . 

.       44,843 

San  Francisco,  Cal.    . 

.      350,000      . 

.      298,997 

Savannah,  Ga.   . 

66,000       . 

.       43,189 

Scranton,  Pa.     . 

.      125,000      . 

75,215 

Seattle,  Wash.   . 

85,000       . 

.       42,837 

Sitka,  Alaska     . 



1,190 

Spokane,  Wash. 

45,000       . 

19,922 

Springfield,  Mass. 

57,676       . 

.       44,179 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

.      130,000      . 

88,143 

Tacoma,  Wash. 

52,000      . 

36,006 

Tampa,  Fla. 

15,634  (1895)  . 

5,532 

Toledo,  O. 

.      145,000       . 

81,434 

Trenton,  N.  J.   . 

62,518  (1895)  . 

57,458 

Troy,N.Y.         .        .        . 

65,000      . 

60,956 

Vicksburg,  Miss. 

20,000      . 

13,373 

Washington,  D.  C.     . 

.     280,000       . 

.     230,392 

Wheeling,  West  Va. 

.       40,000  (1897)  . 

34,522 

Wilkes  Barre,  Pa.      . 

57,000      . 

37,718 

Wilmington,  Del. 

.       70,000      . 

61,431 

Wilmington,  N.  C.    . 

.       27,000      . 

.       20,056 

Worcester,  Mass. 

.      105,000       . 

84,655 

TWENTY-FIVE  LARGEST   CITIES  OF   THE  WX)RLD 


1.  London,  England,  1898 

2.  New  York,  United  States,  1899 

3.  Paris,  France,  1896       . 

4.  Canton,  China 

5.  Chicago,  United  States,  1899 

6.  Berlin,  Germany,  1895 

7.  Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  ,1890 


Population 

4,504,766 
3,549,558 
2,536,834 
2,500,000 
1,950,000 
1,677,304 
1,364,548 


268  APPENDIX 


Population 

8.  Philadelphia,  United  States,  1899        .        .  1,350,000 

9.  Tokio,  Japan,  1896 1,299,941 

10.  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1897         .        .        .  1,267,023 

11.  Moscow,  Russia,  1897 988,614 

12.  Tientsin,  China,  1898 950,000 

13.  Peking,  China,  1898      .        .        .         .        .  900,000 

14.  Constantinople,  Turkey,  1885       .     %   .         .  873,565 

15.  Calcutta,  India,  1891    ..'...  861,764 

16.  Bombay,  India,  1891    .         .        .  •       .        .  821,764 

17.  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1898     .         .         .  753,000 

18.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1898                .        .        .  724,349 

19.  Bangkok,  Siam,  1898 700,000 

20.  Warsaw,  Poland,  1897 638,209 

21.  Liverpool,  England,  1898      .         .         .         .  633,645 

22.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1895    .         .         .         .  625,552 

23.  St.  Louis,  United  States,  1899      .         .        .  623,000 

24.  Cairo,  Egypt,  1897 570,062 

25.  Brussels,  Belgium,  1897        ....  551,011 


OTHER  IMPORTANT   FOREIGN   CITIES 

Population 

Adelaide,  South  Australia,  1897    ....  146,125 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  1897 319,766 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  1897      ....  503,285 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  1897 271,284 

Athens,  Greece,  1896 111,486 

Bangkok,  Siam,  1898 700,000 

Barcelona,  Spain,  1887 272,481 

Belfast,  Ireland,  1891 255,950 

Berlin,  Germany,  1895  .     -   .        .                 .        .  1,677,304 

Berne,  Switzerland,  1897 49,030 

Birmingham,  England,  1898 510,343 

Bombay,  India,  1891 821,764 

Bordeaux,  France,  1896 256,906 

Brussels,  Belgium,  1897 551,011 

Budapest,  Austria-Hungary,  1890          .         .         .  505,763 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1898      ....  753,000 

Cairo,  Egypt,  1897 570,062 

Calcutta,  India,  1891 861,764 

Callao,  Peru,  1890 .  35,492 

Canton.  China 2,500,000 

Cape  Town,  Cape  Colony,  1891      ....  51,251 

Caracas,  Venezuela,  1891 72,429 


APPENDIX 


209 


Population 

Christiania,  Norway,  1897 200,000 

Constantinople,  Turkey,  1885        .        .        .        .  873,565 

Copenhagen,  Denmark,  1890          ....  312,859 

Dresden,  Germany,  1895 336,440 

Dublin,  Ireland,  1891 245,001 

Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1898 295,628 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  1897 86,535 

Glasgow,  Scotland,  1898 724,349 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1891 38,556 

Hamburg,  Germany,  1895 625,552 

Havre,  France,  1896       .         ...         .         .        .  119,470 

Hongkong,  China,  1898 248,710 

Jerusalem,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1885  ....  41,000 

Johannesburg,  South  African  Republic,  1896       .  102,078 

Kimberley,  Cape  Colony,  1891       ....  28.718 

Leipzig,  Germany,  1895 399^963 

Lima,  Peru,  1891 103,956 

Lisbon,  Portugal,  1890 301,206 

Liverpool,  England,  1898 633,645 

London,  England,  1898 4,504,766 

Lyon,  France,  1896 466,028 

Madras,  India,  1891 452,518 

Madrid,  Spain,  1887 470,283 

Malaga,  Spain,  1887 134,016 

Manchester,  England,  1898 539,079 

Marseille,  France,  1896 442,239 

Mecca,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1885         ....  60,000 

Melbourne,  Victoria,  1897 458,610 

Mexico,  Mexico,  1895 344,377 

Milan,  Italy,  1897 470,558 

Mocha,  Turkey  in  Asia 5,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay,  1897 249,251 

Montreal,  Canada,  1891 216,650 

Moscow,  Russia,  1897 988,614 

Munich,  Germany,  1895 407,307 

Naples,  Italy,  1897 536,073    . 

Odessa,  Russia,  1897 405,041 

Ottawa,  Canada,  1891 44,154 

Para,  Brazil,  1892 .  65,000 

Paris,  France,  1896 2,536,834 

Peking,  China,  1898 900,000 

Prague,  Austria-Hungary,  1890     ....  184,109 

Quebec,  Canada,  1891 63,090 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1890 522,651 

Rome,  Italy,  1897 487,066 

St.  John,  NBW  Brunswick,  1891     ....  39,179 


270  APPENDIX 

Population 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1897 1,267,023 

Santiago,  Chile,  1897 302,131 

Shanghai,  China,  1897 457,000 

Singapore,  Malay  Peninsula,  1891          .         .         .  160,000 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  1897 288,602 

Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  1897  ....  417,250 

Teheran,  Persia,  1897 210,000 

The  Hague,  Netherlands,  1897      ....  196,325 

Tientsin,  China,  1898 950,000 

Tokio,  Japan,  1896 1,299,941 

Toronto,  Canada,  1891 181,220 

Trieste,  Austria-Hungary,  1SDO     ....  158,344 

Valparaiso,  Chile,  1897 139,038 

Vancouver,  Canada,  1891       .....  13,685 

Venice,  Italy,  1897 155,899 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  1895 88,993 

Victoria,  Canada,  1891 16,841 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1890     ....  1,364,548 

Warsaw,  Poland,  1897 638,209 

Winnepeg,  Canada,  1891 25,642 

Yokohama,  Japan,  1896 179,502 

Zurich,  Switzerland,  1897 151,994 


HEIGHT  OF  A  FEW  MOUNTAIN  PEAKS 

Feet 

Mt.  Everest,  Himalaya  Mountains,  Asia         .        .  29,002 

Aconcagua,  Andes  Mountains,  Chile       .        .        .  22,860 

Mt.  McKinley,  Alaskan  Mountains,  Alaska    .         .  20,464 

Mt.  Logan,  Coast  Ranges,  Canada  ....  19,500 

Mt.  Elburz,  Caucasus  Mountains,  Russia        .        .  18,200 

Orizaba,  Sierra  Madre,  Mexico        ....  18,314 

Mt.  St.  Elias,  Coast  Ranges,  Alaska        .        .         .  18,100 

Mt.  Blanc,  Alps  Mountains,  France        .       •.        .  15,781 

Mt.  Whitney,  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  California  14,898 

Mt.  Rainier,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington        .  14,526 

Mt.  Shasta,  Cascade  Mountains,  California    .        .  14,380 

Pikes  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Colorado        .        .  14,108 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaiian  Islands         ....  13,675 

Fremont  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Wyoming          .  13,790 

Fujiyama,  Japan 12,365 

Mt.  Mitchell,  Appalachian  Mountains,  North  Carolina    6,711 

Mt.  Washington,  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire  6,293 

Mt.  Marcy,  Adirondacks,  New  York       .        .        .  5,344 


APPENDIX 


271 


SOME  OF   THE  LARGEST   RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD 


Name 


Missouri-Mississippi 

Nile      .        . 

Amazon 

Ob         ... 

Yangtse 

Kongo  . 

Lena 

Hoang-Ho     . 

Niger   . 

Plata     . 

Mackenzie    . 

Volga    . 

St.  Lawrence 

Yukon 

Indus    . 

Danube 


Country 

United  States 

Africa 

South  America 

Siberia 

China 

Africa 

Siberia 

China 

Africa 

South  America 

Canada 

Russia 

North  America 

Alaska 

India 

Europe 


Lriiirth 

lln-in  area 

Ocean 

in  miles 

4,300 

1,257,000 

Atlantic 

3,400 

1,273,000 

Atlantic 

3,300 

2,500,000 

Atlantic 

3,200 

1,000,000 

Arctic 

3,200 

548,000 

Pacific 

2,900 

1,200,000 

Atlantic 

2,800 

950.0()<) 

Arctic 

2,700 

570,000 

Pacific 

2,600 

563,300 

Atlantic 

2,580 

1,200.000 

Atlantic 

2,000 

590,000 

Arctic 

2,400 

563,300 

Caspian 

2,200 

519,000 

Atlantic 

2,000 

440,000 

Pacific 

1,800 

372,700 

Indian 

1,770 

300,000 

Atlantic 

TEN  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES  OF  THE  WORLD 


Name 

Caspian 

Superior 

Victoria  Nyanza 

Aral 

Huron 

Michigan 

Tanganyika 

Baikal  * 

Erie 

Chad  (a  shallow  lake 
very  large  in  the 
and  shrinks  in  the 


Length       Breadth 

Area  in  Square 

Country 

in  Miles       in  Miles 

Miles 

680          270 

169,000 

Russia 

390          160 

31,200 

U.  S.  and  Canada 

230          220 

30,000 

Africa 

225          185 

26,900 

Asiatic  Russia 

250          100 

17,400 

U.  S.  and  Canada 

335            85 

20,000 

U.  S.  and  Canada 

420           50 

12,650 

Africa 

397            45 

12,500 

Siberia 

250            58 

10,000 

U.  S.  and  Canada 

which  grows 

, 

rainy  season 

about 

dry  season) 

10,000 

Africa 

APPROXIMATE  AVERAGE  HEIGHT  OF  SOME  PLATEAUS 


Tibet  

Bolivia        .... 
Abyssinia    .... 
Mexico        .... 
Western  United  States  Plateau 
Brazil          .... 


Feet 
10-15,000 

10-13,000 

5-7,000 

5-6,000 

5-6,000 

2,000-2,500 


INDEX  OF  PLACES  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 

a,  as  in  fat ;  a,  as  in  fate  ;  a,  as  in  far ;  9,  as  in  fall ;  e,  as 
in  pen  ;  e,  as  in  mete.}  e,  as  in  her ;  z,  as  in  pin  ;  i,  as  in  pine ;  o,  as  in 
not ;  o,  as  in  no£e ;  o,  as  in  ?nove ;  w,  as  in  ^&  ;  w,  as  in  ww£e ;  w,  as  in 
pwZZ ;  g,  as  in  #e£  ;  g,  as  in  ^em  ;  c,  as  in  cat ;  £,  as  in  cerc£. 

A  double  dot  under  a  or  o  (a,  q)  indicates  that  its  sound  is  shortened  to 
that  of  u  in  but. 

Italicized  letters  are  silent.  The  sign  ;  tells  upon  which  syllable  the 
accent  is  placed.  The  numbers  refer  to  pages  in  the  book  excepting  where 
Fig.  is  before  them,  when  they  refer  to  figures  in  the  book. 


Ab-ys-sin'-i-a,  244. 

A-con-ca'-gua  (gwa),  Fig.  177. 

A-crop'-6-lis,  224. 

Ad'-e-laide,  252. 

Ad-i-ron'-dacks,  39,  151. 

Ad-ri-at'-ic,  221,  224. 

Af-g/ian-is-tan',  Fig.  203. 

Af'-ri-ca,  132,  242. 

Al-a-ba'-ma,  159. 

A-las'-ka,  188. 

Al'-ba-ny  (ni),  150. 

Aleutian  (a-lu'-shun),    Fig.    203. 

Al-ex-an'-dri-a,  244. 

Al-ge'-ri-a,  Fig.  214. 

Allegheny  .(al'-e-ga-na),    41,    154, 

155. 

Alps,  21. 

Am'-a-zon,  199,  201. 
Am'-ster-dam,  217. 
Amur  (a-moor'),  Fig.  203. 
Andes  (an'-dez),  199,  204. 
An-drps-cog'-grin,  145. 

T  273 


An-nap'-o-lis,  156. 
Antarctic  (an-tark'-tik),  133. 
An-til'-les  (lez),  198. 
Ant'-werp,  217. 
Ap-pa-lach'-i-ans,    139,    153,    154, 

159,  160. 
A-ra'-bi-a,  232. 
Ar'-al,  Fig.  203. 
Ar'-a-rat,  Fig.  203. 
Arctic  (ark'-tik),  133. 
Ar-gen-ti'-na  (te),  203. 
Ar-i-zo'-na,  176. 
Ar'-kan-sas  (saw),  159. 
Asia  (a'-shia),  131,  230. 
AU-a-bas'-ca,  Fig.  123. 
Ath'-ens  (enz),  224. 
At-lan'-ta,  160. 
At-lan'-tic,  63,  133. 
Aw-gus'-ta,  Fig.  125. 
Aus-tra'-li-a,  132,  249. 
Aus'-tri-a,  223. 
A-zores'  (zorz'),  Fig.  214. 


274 


INDEX 


Baf'-/in  Land,  193. 

Ba-ha'-ma,  198. 

Baikal  (bi'-kal),  Fig.  203. 

Bal'-tic,  211,  213. 

Bal'-ti-inore,  149,  156. 

Ban'-gor,  145. 

Bang-kok',  240. 

Bar-ce-lo'-na.,  220. 

Bat'-on  Rouge  (r8ozh),  Fig.  140. 

Bel'-fast,  or  (fast),  209. 

Bel'-gi-um,  217. 

Ben-gal',  Fig.  203. 

Be'-ring  Sea,  Fig.  203. 

Ber-lin',  216. 

Ber-inu'-da,  198. 

Berne,  223. 

Bir'-m ing-ham  (Ber),  Ala.,  160. 

Bir'-ining-ham  (urn),  Eng.,  209. 

Bo-go-ta',  Fig.  177. 

Boise  (boi'-ze),  Fig.  157. 

Bo-k/ia'-ra,  Fig.  203. 

Bo-liv'-i-a,  Fig.  177. 

Bom-bay',  239. 

Bordeaux'  (bor-do'),  218,  219. 

Bor'-ne-o,  Fig.  221. 

Bos'-ton,  37,  66,  142,  143,  147. 

Braft-ma-pu'-tra  (poo),  Fig.  203. 

Bra-zil',"200.  '  " 

Bridge'-port,  147. 

Brit'-ish  Isles,  207. 

Brooklyn  (lin),  149. 

Brus'-sels,  217. 

Bu'-da-pest  (Boo),  223. 

Buenos    Aires    (bwa'-nos    I'-res), 

203. 

Buf'-fa-lo,  150,  151,  152. 
Bul-ga'-ri-a,  225. 
Burma  (be'r'-ma),  239. 
Butte  (but),  181. 

Cairo  (kl'-ro),  Egypt,  244. 
Cal-cut'-£a,  239. 
Cal-i-for'-ni-a,  179. 
Cal-la'-o,  205. 


Cam'-bridge,  142. 
Cam'-den,  153. 
Can'-a-da,  140,  190. 
Can'-§er,  Tropic,  120. 
Can-ton',  236. 
Cape  Town,  248. 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  Fig.  214. 
Cap'-ri-corn,  Tropic,  120. 
Ca-ra'rcas,  203. 
Car-ifc-be'-an,  197. 
Cas-cade'  Range,  177. 
Cas'-pi-an,  213. 
Cas-tine'  (ten),  65. 
Cats'-kiUs,  151. 

Caucasus  (ka'-kti-sus) ,  Fig.  183. 
Cayenne  (ka-yen'),  Fig.  177. 
Celebes  (sel'-e-bez),  Fig.  221. 
Qen'-tral  -Amer'-i-ca,  140,  197. 
Ceylon' (se-lon'),  Fig.  203. 
Chad,  Fig.  214. 
Cham-plam'  (sham),  Fig.  132. 
Charles'-ton  (charlz),  165. 
Chat-«a-noo'-ga,  160. 
Ches'-a-peake,  149. 
Cheyenne  (shi-en'),  Fig.  157. 
Chi-ca'-go  (She),  170,  171. 
Chile  (Chil'-a),  205. 
Chim-bo-ra'-zo,  14. 
Chi-na,  100,  235. 
Chris-ti-a'-ni-a  (ne-a),  212. 
Qin-gm-na'-ti,  174. 
Cleve'-land,  173. 
Coast  Ranges,  177. 
Co-lpm'-bi-a  (be-a),  205. 
Col-0-ra'-d5,  180." 
Col-o-ra'-do  Can'-ypn,  178. 
Co-lum'-bi-a  (be-a)  District,  156. 
Co-lum'-bi-a  (be-a)  River,  185. 
Co-lum'-bus,  174. 
Con-nect'-i-cut,  146. 
Con-stan-ti-no'-ple,  225. 
C5-pen-ha'-gen,  212. 
Cor-dil-ler'-as,  177. 
Cor'-inth,  224. 


INDEX 


275 


Cor'-si-ca,  Fig.  183. 
Crete,  Fig.  183. 
Cu-ba,  112,  197. 

Dal'-Za.s,  161. 

Dan'-ube,  223,  225. 

Dar'-ling  River,  250. 

Dead  Sea,  55. 

Del'-a-ware,  149. 

Den'-mark,  212. 

Den'-ver,  180. 

Des  Moines  (de-moin') ,  Fig.  148. 

De-troit',  173. 

Dnieper  (ne'-per),  Fig.  183. 

Dniester  (nes'-ter),  Fig.  183. 

Dres'-den  (drez),  216. 

Dub'-lin,  Fig.  183. 

Duluth  (Do-looth'),  172. 

Dwina  (dwe'-na),  183. 

East  In'-di-a  Islands,  132,  252. 
Ecuador  (ek'-wa-dor) ,  205. 
Edinburgh  (ed'-n-bur-o),  209. 
E'-gypt,  244. 
El'-be,  215. 

El-burz'  (boorz),  Fig.  183. 
England  (ing'-land),  100,  208. 
E'-rie,  Lake,  161. 
Es'-ki-mos  (moz),  122,  193. 
Eurasia  (u-ra'-she-a) ,  131. 
Europe  (u'-rop),  131,  207. 
Ev'-er-est,  Mt.,  230. 

FaH  River,  147. 
Fiji  (fe'-je),  254. 
Flor'-i-da,  162. 
For-mo'-sa,  237. 
France  (frans),  217. 
Fu-ji-ya'-ma  (foo),  270. 

Gal'-ves-ton,  165. 
Ganges  (gan'-jez),  239. 
Gen-e-see',  152. 
Ge-ne'-va,  223. 


Geor-gi-a.,  162. 

Ger'-ma-ny  (na),  214. 

Gi-bral'-tar,  242. 

Glas'-gOw?,  209. 

Gloucester  (glos'-ter),  73,  143,  185. 

Gobi  (g5'-b6),  231. 

Grand  Rap'-ids,  173. 

Great  Britain  (brit'-n),  207. 

Great  Lakes,  63,  58. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  55,  182,  183. 

Greece  (Gres),  224. 

Green'-land,  193. 

Guam  (Gwam),  Fig.  221. 

Guiana  (ge-a'-na.),  203. 

Guth'-rte,  Fig.  140. 

Haiti  (ha'-ti),  198. 

Hal'-i-fax,  192. 

Ham '-burg  (berg),  215. 

Har'-ris-burg  (berg),  154. 

Hart'-ford,  147. 

Ha-van'-a,  197. 

Havre  (a'-vr),218. 

Hawaii  (ha-wa'-e),  254. 

Hawaiian  (ha-wa'-yan)  Islands,  124, 

135,  186,  254. 
Hel'-e-na,  Fig.  157. 
Him-a-la'-ya,  230. 
Ho-ang-ho',  Fig.  203. 
Hol'-Zand,  216. 
Hoiig'-kong,  236. 
H6-no-lu'-lu  (loo'-loo),254. 
Hud '-son  River,  150. 
Hun'-ga-ry  (ray),  223. 
Hu'-ron,  Lake,  Fig.  148. 

iQe'-land,  212. 
I'-da-ho,  Fig.  157. 
Illinois  (il-i-noi'),  168,  169. 
Iloilo  (e-lo-e'-lo),  Fig.  221. 
In'-di-a,  238. 
In'-di-an,  134. 
In-di-an'-a,  169. 
In-di-an-ap'-o-lis,  95,  174. 


276 


INDEX 


In'-di-an  Ter'-ri-to-ry,  165. 

In'-do  Chi'-na,  240. 

In'-dus,  239. " 

P-6-toa,  168. 

Ireland  (I'-er-land),  207. 

Ir-kutsk'  (kotsk),  Fig.  203. 

It'-a-ly  (la),  220. 

Jack'-son-viUe,  165. 
Jamaica  (ja-ma'-ka),  198. 
Ja-pan',  237. 
Ja'-va,  252. 

Jersey  (jer'-zi)  City,  149. 
Je-ru'-sa-lem  (ro),  232. 
Johannesburg      (y  o-han'-es-berg) , 
247. 

Kam-chat'-ka,  Fig.  203. 
Kan'-sas  (zas),  167. 
Kan'-sas  (zas)  City,  174. 
Ka-ta/i'-dm,  Fig.  125. 
Ken-we-bec',  145. 
Ken-tuck'-y,  168. 
Kim'-ber-ley,  247. 
Klon'-dike,  188,  191. 
JTnox'-vilZe,  160. 
Kon'-go,  246. 
Ko-re'-a,  237. 

Lab-ra-dor'  (door),  190. 
Lachine  (La-shen')  Rapids,  191. 
La-drone',  Fig.  221. 
Lawrence  (la'-rens),  147. 
Leipzig  (lip'-tsig),  216. 
Le'-na,  Fig.  203. 
Li'-ma  (le) ,  205. 
Lis'-bon  (liz),220. 
Liv'-er-pool,  209. 
Loire  (Iwar),  Fig.  183. 
Lon'-don  (lun),  208,  210. 
Los  An'-ge-les,  184,  186. 
Louisiana  (lo-e-zi-an'-a),  Fig.  140. 
Louisville  (lo'-is-vil),  174. 
Loic'-eU,  147. 


Lu-zon'  (lo),  253. 
Lynn  (lin),  147. 
Lyon  (ll'-on),  218. 

Mackenzie  (ma-ken'-zi) ,  139. 
Mad-a-gas'-car,  Fig.  214. 
Ma-dei'-ra,  Fig.  214. 
Ma-dras',"239. 
Ma-drid',  220. 
Mame,  144. 
Mal'-a-ga,  220. 
Ma-lay',  Fig.  203. 
Man'-ches-ter,  Eng.,  209. 
Man'-ches-ter,  N.H.,  146,  147. 
Man-clm'-ri-a,  Fig.  203. 
Ma-nil'-a,  253. 
Man-i-to'-ba,  191. 
Marseille  (mar-sal'),  219. 
Maryland  (rner'-i-land),  149. 
Mas-sa-cM'-set^s,  Fig.  125. 
Mat'-£er-horn,  222. 
Mau'-na  L5'-a,  270. 
Mec'-ca,  232. 

Med'-i-ter-ra'-ne-an,  231,  242. 
Me-kong'  (ma),  Fig.  203.    - 
Mel'-bourne  (bern),  252. 
Mem'-phis  (fis),  164. 
Mer'-ri-mac,  146. 
Me-sa'-bi,  169. 
Mex'-i-co,  140,  195. 
Mex'-i-co  City,  197. 
Mich'-i-gan  (mish),  169. 
Mich'-i-gan  (mish),  Lake,  171. 
Mi-Ian',  222. 
Mil-waw'-kee,  171. 
Min-da-na'-o  (men),  Fig.  221. 
Min-do'-ro  (men),  Fig.  221. 
Min-ne-ap'-o-lis,  172. 
Min-we-so'-ta,  168,  169. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi,  172. 
Mis-sis-sip'-pi  River,  31,  42,  46,  51, 

139,  159. 

Mis-so^-ri,  159,  173. 
Mo-bile'  (bel),  165. 


INDEX 


277 


M5'-c/ia,  233. 

M5-ham'-me-dan,  225,  232. 
M6'-hat0k,  150,  161. 
Mon-g5'-li-a,  Fig.  203. 
M5-non-ga-he'-la,  41. 
Mon-ta'-na,  181. 
Mont  Blanc,  21, 23. 
Mon-te-ne'-grd  (nfi),  225. 
Mon-te-vid'-e-5,  203. 
Mont-pe'-li-er  (Iyer),  Fig.  125. 
Mont-re-al',  192. 
Moose-head  Lake,  56. 
Mo-roc'-co,  Fig.  214. 
Mo'-ros,  254. 
Mos'-cow,  213. 
Mu'-nicft,  216. 
Mur'-ray  River,  250. 

Nan-tuck'-et,  Fig.  125. 

Na'-ples  (plz),  221. 

Nash'-viHe,  Fig.  140. 

Ne-bras'-ka,  167. 

Ne-gri'-tos  (gre'-toz),  254. 

Neth'-er-lands,  216. 

Ne-va'-da,  181. 

New'-ark,  149. 

New  Bed'-ford,  147. 

New  Cal-e-do'-ni-a,  Fig.  221. 

New  Eng'-land  (ing'),  93,  142. 

New'-found-land,  190. 

New  Guinea  (gin'-i),  Fig.  221. 

New  Hamp' -shire,  142. 

New  Ha'-ven,  142,  147. 

New  Heb'-ri-des  (dez),  Fig.  221. 

New  Jersey  (jer'-zi),  153. 

New  Mex'-i-co,  176. 

New  Or'-le-ans,  51,  87,  163,  164. 

New  South  Wales  (Walz),  249. 

New  York,  65,  66,  89,  96,  149",  152. 

New  Zea'-land,  252. 

Ni-ag'-a-ra  Falls,  152. 

Nic-a-ra'-gua  (gwa),  Fig.  123. 

Ni'-ger,  246. 

Nile,  46,  244. 


Nor'-foZk,  166. 

North  A-mer'-i-Cft,  129,  138. 

North  Car-5-l!'-na.,  Fig.  140. 

North  Da-kO'-ta,  Fig.  143. 

North'-ft6ld,  37. 

Nor'-way,  211. 

NO'-va  Sco'-tia  (Sc6'-sha),  190. 

Ob,  Fig.  203. 

O-des'-sa,  213. 

Og'-den,  183. 

O-hl'-o,  45,  168,  169. 

Ok-la-ho'-ma,  160,  165. 

O-lym'-pi-a,  Fig.  157. 

O'-ma-ha,  174. 

On-ta'-ri-o,  Lake,  Figs.  132,  171. 

Or'-e-gon,  185. 

O-ri-no'-co,  199,  202. 

O-ri-za-ba,  271. 

Ot'-«a-wa,  192. 

Pa-?if'-ic,  133. 

Pa-la-wan',  Fig.  221. 

Pal'-es-tine,  232. 

Pan-a-ma'  Canal,  186. 

Pan-a-ma'  Is^-mus,  129,  197,  205. 

Panay  (Pa-nl'),  Fig.  221. 

Pa-ra',  201. 

Par'-a-guay  (gwi),  199. 

Par-a-mar'-i-bo,  Fig.  177. 

Par'-is,  218. 

Pat-a-go'-ni-a,  Fig.  177. 

Pat'-er-son,  150. 

Pe-king',"236. 

Penw-syl-va'-ni-a,  149. 

Pe-nob'-scot,  145. 

Pen-sa-co'-la,  165. 

Per'-sia  (sha),  232. 

Pe-ru'  (ro),  205. 

Petchora  (pech-o'-ra),  Fig.  183. 

Phil-a-del'-phi-a,  66,  149,  153,  156. 

Phil'-ip-pine,  121,  186,  253. 

Phoe'-nix,  Fig.  157. 

Pierre  (pe-ar'),  Fig.  148. 


278 


INDEX 


Pitts'-burg  (berg),  41, 154, 155, 156. 

Pla'-ta,  203. 

Po-po-cat-e-pe'-tl,  195. 

Port  Ar'-thur,  235. 

Port'-land,  Me.,  143, 147. 

Port '-land,  Oregon,  185,  186. 

P6r'-to'  Ri'-co  (re'-ko),  198. 

Por'-tu-gal,  219. 

Pp-to'-mac,  156. 

Poughkeepsie  (po-kip'-si),  150. 

Prague,  224. 

Pribilof  (pre'-be-lof)  Islands,  189. 

Prov'-i-dence,  143,  147. 

Pueblo  (pweb'-lo),  15,  180. 

Pu'-get  Sound,  185. 

Pyrenees  (pir'-e-nez) ,  219. 

Quebec  (kw6-bek'),  192. 
Queens'-land,  249. 
Qui-to  (ke'-to),  Fig.  177. 

Rainier  (ra'-ner),  Fig.  157. 

Raleigh  (ra'-li),  Fig.  140. 

Read'-ing,  154. 

RAine,  214,  215. 

R/iode  Island,  Fig.  125. 

Rich'-mond,  157. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (re'-o  da  zha-ne'-ro) , 

202. 

Rio  Grande  (re'-o),  139. 
Roch'-es-ter,  85,  152. 
Rock'-y  Mountains,  33,  36, 139, 177. 
Rome,  220. 
Rou-ina'-ni-a,  225. 
Russia  (rush'-a),  212. 
Rut'-land,  144. 

Sac-ra-men'-to,  Fig.  157. 

Sag'-i-naic,  173. 

Sa-ha'-ra,  242. 

St.  An'-tho-ny  (ni)  Falls,  172. 

St.  John,  192. 

St.  Law'-ren^e,  53,  139,  192. 

St.  Louis  (lo'-is),  42,  173. 


St.  Paul,  88,  172. 

St.  Pe'-ters-burg  (berg),  213. 

Salt  Lake  City,  182. 

Sa-mar',  Fig.  221. 

Sa-mo'-a,  254. 

San  Fran-gis'-co,  66,  180,  185,  186. 

San'-taFe"  (fa),  Fig.  157. 

San-ti-a'-go  (te),  205. 

Sar-dm'-i-a,  Fig.  183. 

Sa-van'-?za/i,  165. 

Scot'-land,  208. 

Scran'-ton,  155. 

Se-at'-£le,  185,  186. . 

Seine  (san),  218. 

Seoul  (sol),  Fig.  203. 

Ser'-vi-a,  225. 

Shang-hai'  (hi),  236. 

Shas'-ta,  Fig.  124. 

Si-am',  240. 

Si-be'-ri-a,  234: 

Si-er'-ra  (se)  Mad'-re  (ra),Fig.  123. 

Si-er'-ra  (se)  Ne-va'-da.,  20,  177. 

Sin-ga-pore,  240. 

Sit'-ka,  188,  189. 

Sow-dan',  246. 

South  A-mer'-i-ca,  129,  130,  199. 

South  Car-o-ll'-na,  159. 

South  Da-ko'  -ta,  Fig.  148. 

Spam,  100,  219. 

Spo-kane',  185. 

Spring'-fzeld,  147. 

Stock'-holm,  212. 

Sucre  (soo'-kra),  Fig.  177. 

Su-ez'  (so),  245.     , 

Sulu  (so-lo'),  254. 

Su-ma'-tra  (so),  Fig.  221. 

Su-pe'-ri-or,  Lake  (so),  150,  169. 

Swe'-den,  211. 

Swit'-zer-land,  131,  222. 

Syd'-ney,  252. 

Syr'-a-cuse,  150,  152. 

Ta-co'-ma,  185,  186. 
Ta-gal'-ogs,  254. 


IXDEX 


279 


Tal-7a-has'-s6e,  Fig.  140. 

Tam'-pa,  165. 

Tan-gan-yi'-ka  (y6),  Fig.  214. 

Tas-ma'-ni-a  (taz),  252. 

Te-heran',  Fig.  203. 

Ten-nes-seV,  Fig.  140. 

Tex'-as,  159,  161. 

Thames  (teinz) ,  208. 

The  Hagii£  (hag),  217. 

Tib'-et,  Fig.  203. 

Tientsin  (te-en'-tsen'),  236. 

Ti-er'-ra  del  Fue'-go  (fua),  Fig.  177. 

Tim-buk'-tu  (to),  248. 

Ti-ti-ca'-ca  (te-te),Fig.  177. 

To'-ki-o  (ke),  238. 

T6-le'-do,  173. 

To-pe'-ka,  Fig.  148. 

To-ron'-to,  192. 

Tren'-ton,  153. 

Trieste  (tre-est'),  Fig.  183. 

Trin-i-dad',  203. 

Trip'-o-li,  Fig.  214. 

Troy,  152. 

Tu'-nis,  Fig.  214. 

Tur-kes-tan'  (Ter),  Fig.  203. 

Turkey  (ter'-ki),  100,  225. 

U-ni'-ted  States,  97,  140,  141. 
U'-ral  Mountains,  212,  234. 
U-ru-guay  (6-ro-gwl'),  203. 
U'-ta^,  181. 

Val-pa-rai'-so,  205. 
Van-cou'-ver  (ko),  192. 
Ven-e-zue'-la  (zwe),  202. 
Ven'-ige,  221. 
Ve'-raCruz  (kroz),197. 


Ver-mont',  144. 
Ve-su''-vi-us  (so),  125,  221. 
Vicks'-burg  (berg),  164. 
Vic-tO'-ri-a.,  Australia,  249. 
Vic-tO'-ri-a,  Canada,  192. 
Vic-to'-ri-a  Ny-an'-za,  Fig.  214. 
Vi-en'-na,  223. 
Vir-gin'-i-a  (ver),  157. 
Vis'-tu-la,  Fig.  183. 
Vol'-ga,  213. 

Wales  (walz),  208. 
War'-saw,  Fig.  183. 
Wash'-ing-ton   (city),   97,  98,  99, 

156,  157. 

W§,sh '-ing-ton  (state),  185. 
West  Indies  (in'-diz),  197. 
West  Vir-gin'-i-a  (ver),  157. 
Wheel'-ing,  157.' 
White  Mountains,  17. 
Wilkes  Barre  ( wilks;-bar-a) ,  165. 
Wil'-ming-ton,  Del.,  153. 
Wil'-ming-ton,  N.  C.,  165. 
Win'm-peg,"l92. 
Wis-con'-sin,  169. 
Worcester  (wus'-ter),  147. 
Wy-o'-ming  (wl),  Fig.  157. 

Yang'-tse-ki-ang'  (ke),  Fig.  203. 

Yel'-?6ic-stone,  177. 

Yenisei  (yen-e-sa'-e) ,  Fig.  203. 

Yo-ko-ha'-ma,  238. 

Yo-sem'-i-te,  20. 

Yu'-kon,  139,  189. 

Yu-ca-tan',  Fig.  123. 

Zii-rich  (zo'-rik) ,  223. 


FIRST  BOOK  OF 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

By  RALPH   S.   TARR, 

Professor  of  Dynamic  Geology  and  Physical  Geography 
at  Cornell  University. 

izmo.    Illustrated.    Half  leather.    $1.10,  net. 


"The  style  is  simple,  direct,  and  the  illustrations  helpful;  the  book, 
indeed,  being  so  attractive  that  one  hopes  it  will  inspire  even  in  the 
pupil  who  gives  it  briefest  time  a  longing  to  know  more  of  the  marvels 
of  our  world."  —  Providence  Journal. 

"  Although  intended  for  school  use,  there  are  few  readers  who  will 
not  be  profoundly  interested  in  the  volume,  which  is  profusely  illus- 
trated. Technical  terms  are  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  where  they 
are  used  they  are  clearly  explained."  —  Boston  Transcript. 

"  This  book  is  packed  with  information  needed  by  every  grammar- 
school  pupil;  but  what  signifies  vastly  more,  the  pupil  gets  this  infor- 
mation in  a  way  that  gives  thorough  discipline  —  in  observation,  careful 
reading,  discriminating  thinking.  This  book  is  the  best  possible  proof 
of  the  statement  that  all  new  science  work  depends  for  its  value  upon 
being  rightly  taught.  This  book  is  an  admirable  presentation  of  prac- 
tical pedagogy."  — Journal  of  Education. 

"The  style  of  Professor  Tarr's  book  is  literary,  scholarly,  and  sane; 
a  pleasing  relief  from  the  disjointed  paragraphs  of  some  of  his  con- 
temporaries. .  .  .  This  book  will  prove  a  formidable  rival  to  the  best 
physical  geographies  now  in  the  field." —  Educational  Review. 

"  No  written  description  of  the  book  can  do  justice  to  it.  It  will  well 
repay  personal  examination."  — New  York  Education. 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

66   FIFTH   AVENUE,    NEW  YORK. 


ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES, 

WITH  BRIEFER  MENTION  OF  FOREIGN  MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 

By  RALPH  S.  TARR,  B.S.,  F.G.S.A., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Geology  at  Cornell  University. 

Second  Edition.    Revised.    $3.50. 


COMMENTS. 

"  I  am  more  than  pleased  with  your  new  '  Economic  Geology  of  the  United 
States.'  An  introduction  to  this  subject,  fully  abreast  of  its  recent  progress,  and 
especially  adapted  to  American  students  and  readers,  has  been  a  desideratum.  The 
book  is  admirably  suited  for  class  use,  and  I  shall  adopt  it  as  the  text-book  for  instruc- 
tion in  Economic  Geology  in  Colorado  College.  It  is  essentially  accurate,  while 
writfen  in  a  pleasant  and  popular  style,  and  is  one  of  the  few  books  on  practical 
geology  that  the  general  public  is  sure  to  pronounce  readable.  The  large  share  of 
attention  given  to  non-metallic  resources  is  an  especially  valuable  feature." —  FRANCIS 
W.  CRAGIN,  Professor  of  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Paleontology  at  Colorado 
College. 

"  I  have  examined  Professor  R.  S.  Tarr's  '  Economic  Geology '  with  much 
pleasure.  It  fills  a  felt  want.  It  will  be  found  not  only  very  helpful  to  students  and 
teachers  by  furnishing  the  fundamental  facts  of  the  science,  but  it  places  within  easy 
reach  of  the  business  man,  the  capitalist,  and  the  statesman,  fresh,  reliable,  and  com- 
plete statistics  of  our  national  resources.  The  numerous  tables  bringing  out  in  an 
analytic  way  the  comparative  resources  and  productiveness  of  our  country  and  of 
different  states,  are  a  specially  convenient  and  admirable  feature.  The  work  is  ?i 
interesting  demonstration  of  the  great  public  importance  of  the  science  of  geology." 
—  JAMES  E.  TODD,  State  Geologist,  South  Dakota. 

"  It  is  one  of  those  books  that  is  valuable  for  what  it  omits,  and  for  the  concise 
method  of  presenting  its  data.  The  American  engineer  has  now  the  ability  to  acquire 
the  latest  knowledge  of  the  theories,  locations,  and  statistics  of  the  leading  American 
ore  bodies  at  a  glance.  Were  my  course  one  of  text-books,  I  should  certainly  use  it, 
and  I  have  already  called  the  attention  of  my  students  to  its  value  as  a  book  of 
reference."  —  EDWARD  H.  WILLIAMS,  Professor  of  Mining,  Engineering,  and 
Geology  at  Lehigh  University. 

"I  have  taken  time  for  a  careful  examination  of  the  work;  and  it  gives  me 
pleasure  to  say  that  it  is  very  satisfactory.  Regarded  simply  as  a  general  treatise 
on  Economic  Geology,  it  is  a  distinct  advance  on  anything  that  we  had  before;  while 
in  its  relations  to  the  Economic  deposits  of  this  country  it  is  almost  a  new  creation 
and  certainly  supplies  a  want  long  and  keenly  felt  by  both  teachers  and  general 
students.  Its  appearance  was  most  timely  in  my  case,  and  my  class  in  Economic 
Geology  are  already  using  it  as  a  text-book."  —  WILLIAM  O.  CROSBY,  Assistant 
Professor  of  Structural  and  Economic  Geology  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  oj 
Technology. 


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Elementary  Physical  Geography* 

BY 

RALPH   STOCKMAN   TARR,   B.S.,    F.G.S.A., 

Professor    of  Dynamic    Geology    and    Physical    Geography    at    Cornell   University, 
Author  of  "Economic    Geology  of  the  United  States"  etc. 

Fifth  Edition,  Revised.     12010.    Cloth.    $1.40  net. 


"  There  is  an  advanced  and  modernized  phase  of  physical  geography,  how- 
ever, which  the  majority  of  the  committee  prefer  to  designate  physiography, 
not  because  the  name  is  important,  but  because  it  emphasizes  a  special  and 
important  phase  of  the  subject  and  of  its  treatment.  The  scientific  investi- 
gations of  the  last  decade  have  made  very  important  additions  to  the  physio- 
graphic knowledge  and  methods  of  study.  These  are  indeed  so  radical  as 
to  be  properly  regarded,  perhaps,  as  revolutionary." 

"  The  majority  of  the  Conference  wish  to  impress  upon  the  attention  of  the 
teachers  the  fact  that  there  has  been  developed  within  the  past  decade  a  new 
and  most  important  phase  of  the  subject,  and  to  urge  that  they  hasten  to 
acquaint  themselves  with  it  and  bring  it  into  the  work  of  the  school-room 
and  of  the  field."  —  Report  of  Geography  Conference  to  the  Committee  of  Ten. 


The  phenomenal  rapidity  with  which  Tarr's  Elementary  Physical  Geography 
has  been  introduced  into  the  best  high  schools  of  this  country  is  a  fact 
familiar  to  the  school  public.  The  reason  should,  by  this  time,  be  equally 
familiar  —  the  existence  of  a  field  of  school  work  in  which,  until  the  appearance 
of  Tarr's  book,  there  was  not  a  single  adequate  or  modern  American  text- 
book. That  such  a  field  did  exist,  is  simply  shown  by  the  paragraphs  reprinted 
above.  The  adoption  of  the  book  in  such  important  high  schools  as  those  of 
Chicago,  and  the  expressions  of  approval  from  representative  New  England 
schools,  will  indicate  how  well  the  field  has  been  covered. 

Tarr's  High  School  Geology,  uniform  with  Elementary  Physical  Geo- 
graphy, has  attained  wide  use  since  its  publication  in  February. 


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NEW  YORK.  CHICAGO.  SAN    FRANCISCO. 


ELEMENTARY  GEOLOGY. 


BY 


RALPH  STOCKMAN  TARR,   B.S.,   F.G.S.A., 

Professor  of  Dynamic    Geology  and   Physical    Geography  at   Cornell   University^ 
Author  of  "Economic    Geology  of  the   United  States"  etc. 


i2mo.    Cloth.    486  pp.    Price  $1.40  net. 


COMMENTS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

"  We  do  not  remember  to  have  noted  a  text-book  of  geology  which 
seems  to  so  go  to  the  heart  of  the  matter."  —  Phila.  Evening  Bulletin. 

"The  author's  style  is  clear,  direct,  and  attractive.  In  short,  he  has 
done  his  work  so  well  that  we  do  not  see  how  it  could  have  been  done 
better."  —  Journal  of  Pedagogy. 

"  It  is  far  in  advance  of  all  geological  text-books,  whether  American 
or  European,  and  it  marks  an  epoch  in  scientific  instruction." 

—  The  American  Geologist. 

"  The  student  is  to  be  envied  who  can  begin  the  study  of  this  deeply 
interesting,  fascinating  subject  with  such  an  attractive  help  as  this 
text-book."  —  Wooster  Post-Graduate. 

"The  Geology  is  admirably  adapted  for  its  purpose  —  that  of  a  text- 
book." —  Brooklyn  Standard  Union. 

"  So  admirable  an  exposition  of  the  science  as  is  found  in  this  book 
must  be  welcomed  both  by  instructors  and  students.  The  arrange- 
ment of  facts  is  excellent,  the  presentation  of  theory  intelligent  and 
progressive,  and  the  style  exceedingly  attractive."  —  N.  Y.  Tribune. 


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0923 


